Reading guide
The teaching in one sentence
Just as a skilled elephant tracker withholds conclusion at each stage of tracking — large footprint, high traces, tusk-marks — until the bull elephant is seen directly, a practitioner should not conclude that the teaching is fully understood at any stage of the path until the defilements are destroyed and liberation is directly known.
The prologue: Pilotika’s four footprints (§§2–8)
The discourse opens on the road. The brahmin Jānussoṇi, driving in his white chariot, encounters the wanderer Pilotika returning from a visit to the Buddha. He asks what Pilotika thinks of the Buddha’s wisdom. Pilotika’s answer is carefully structured: “Who am I to judge the ascetic Gotama’s lucidity of wisdom? You’d really have to be on the same level to judge.” When pressed, Pilotika explains by analogy. He has seen four “footprints” of the Buddha:
- Clever aristocrats who formulate questions to refute the Buddha — but after hearing him teach, they don’t even ask their questions and become his disciples.
- Clever brahmins — same result.
- Clever householders — same result.
- Clever ascetics who come to refute him — but who end up going forth under him and realizing the goal of the spiritual life. They say: “We were almost lost! We almost perished! For we used to claim that we were ascetics, brahmins, and perfected ones, but we were none of these things. But now we really are.”
Jānussoṇi is moved enough to express devotion and then visits the Buddha to report the conversation. The Buddha’s response is the discourse’s structural pivot: “Brahmin, the simile of the elephant’s footprint is not yet completed in detail.” Pilotika’s four footprints are valid observations, but they are like the tracker’s early signs — not yet conclusive.
The Buddha’s extension: the tracker’s method (§10)
The Buddha retells the simile with crucial additions. A skilled tracker sees a large footprint and does not conclude. Why? Because dwarf cow elephants leave large footprints. He follows further and sees high traces — but does not conclude, because tall cow elephants leave high traces. He sees tusk-marks — but does not conclude, because matriarch cow elephants have tusks. Only when he follows the track to its end and sees the bull elephant walking, standing, sitting, or lying down does he conclude: “This is that big bull elephant.”
The simile’s epistemological point is precise. Each earlier sign is consistent with the bull elephant but also consistent with lesser alternatives. The tracker is not wrong to notice the signs — they are genuine evidence. But evidence is not proof. Only direct seeing is proof. The discourse is making a claim about what counts as knowledge in the spiritual path: the only sufficient evidence is the final realization itself.
The graduated training (§§11–18)
The Buddha then maps the simile onto the path. A Realized One arises in the world and proclaims a teaching. A person hears it, gains faith, and goes forth. What follows is one of the most complete single statements of the graduated training (anupubbasikkhā) in the canon:
| Stage | Content |
|---|---|
| Ethics (§13) | The full spectrum of moral training: non-killing, non-stealing, celibacy, truthful speech, no backbiting, no harsh speech, no idle chatter, not injuring plants, eating in one part of the day, refraining from entertainment, adornment, high beds, handling money, accepting raw provisions, running errands, buying and selling, fraud, and violence. |
| Contentment (§14) | Content with robes and almsfood only — like a bird that flies carrying only its wings. |
| Sense restraint (§15) | Not getting caught up in features and details when seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, or cognizing. Protecting the sense faculties to prevent covetousness and displeasure from becoming overwhelming. |
| Mindfulness (§16) | Acting with situational awareness in all activities: going out, coming back, looking, bending, eating, drinking, speaking, keeping silent. |
| Seclusion (§17) | Frequenting a secluded lodging: wilderness, tree root, hill, ravine, cave, charnel ground, forest, open air, or heap of straw. |
| Hindrances (§18) | Abandoning the five hindrances: covetousness, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, doubt. |
The bird simile in §14 is one of the canon’s most memorable images of contentment: “They’re like a bird: wherever it flies, wings are its only burden.” The mendicant who carries only robes and bowl has achieved the material condition of freedom.
The four absorptions as footprints (§§19–22)
The practitioner enters the four absorptions. Each is explicitly called “a footprint of the Realized One” and also “a trace of the Realized One” and also “a mark of the Realized One.” But at each stage, the discourse adds the crucial caveat: “A noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha.’”
The absorptions are real evidence. They are genuine footprints. But they are like the large footprint in the forest — consistent with the bull elephant but also consistent with lesser alternatives. A practitioner in the fourth absorption has achieved something real, but they do not yet have the right to say they fully understand the teaching.
The three knowledges (§§23–26)
From the base of the fourth absorption, the practitioner develops three knowledges (tevijjā):
- Recollection of past lives (§23) — remembering one, two, a hundred, a hundred thousand rebirths, with features and details. This too is a “footprint” but not yet the conclusion.
- Knowledge of death and rebirth (§24) — seeing with the divine eye how beings pass on according to their deeds. This too is a footprint but not yet the conclusion.
- Knowledge of the ending of defilements (§25) — truly understanding suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path; truly understanding defilements, their origin, their cessation, and the path. At this point, the discourse says: “A noble disciple has not yet come to a conclusion, but they are coming to the conclusion.”
The final step (§26): knowing and seeing like this, the mind is freed from the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance. They understand: “Rebirth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been done, there is nothing further for this place.” Now the simile is completed. Now the tracker has seen the elephant.
The structural argument
MN 27’s argument is about the relationship between evidence and conclusion. Each stage of the path provides genuine evidence — it is a real footprint. But the discourse insists that no intermediate stage justifies the final conclusion. The reason is structural: each intermediate attainment is also achievable by someone who does not go on to complete the path. Ethical conduct can be found in non-Buddhist practitioners. The absorptions were available to Āḻāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta (as MN 26 showed). Even the recollection of past lives and the divine eye do not constitute liberation. Only the destruction of the defilements — the direct knowledge that the journey is finished — completes the simile.
This is also the discourse’s implicit response to Pilotika’s four footprints. Pilotika’s observations are valid: clever people from all four social groups become the Buddha’s disciples. This is evidence. But the Buddha says: evidence is not the same as seeing the elephant. Only the full path, from ethics through to the ending of the defilements, completes the simile.
Three questions Western students often ask
“If even the absorptions and the divine eye are not sufficient, does this mean they are unimportant?” No. The discourse explicitly calls each stage a “footprint of the Realized One.” They are real evidence and real attainments. What the discourse denies is that any intermediate stage is conclusive. The tracker does not dismiss the large footprint — it is a genuine sign. But genuine signs short of seeing the elephant are not proof. The absorptions and the divine eye are necessary steps on the path; they are not the destination. The discourse is arguing against premature stopping, not against the steps themselves.
“The graduated training in this discourse is very detailed and specific — no entertainment, no high beds, no gold. Is this meant to apply to lay followers?” No. The discourse is addressed to someone who has “gone forth from the lay life to homelessness” (§12). The full graduated training is a monastic path. Jānussoṇi himself does not go forth — he declares himself a lay follower who has “gone for refuge for life.” The discourse distinguishes between the full path (for renunciants) and the response of faith (for lay supporters). Both are valid responses to the teaching; they are different in scope.
“The four social groups in Pilotika’s account — aristocrats, brahmins, householders, ascetics — seem to be ranked. Is there a hierarchy?” The four groups correspond to the four main social categories (vaṇṇa) of the Buddha’s society. The discourse presents them in conventional order but treats them identically: clever representatives of each group come to refute the Buddha and end up as his disciples. The structural point is universality, not hierarchy — the teaching converts the best intellects from every social class. The fourth group (ascetics) gets a slightly different outcome (they go forth and realize the goal, rather than just becoming lay disciples), reflecting their existing commitment to the renunciant life.
Key terms
The text
The meeting on the road
§1So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery.
§2Now at that time the brahmin Jānussoṇi drove out from Sāvatthī in the middle of the day in an all-white chariot drawn by mares. He saw the wanderer Pilotika coming off in the distance, and said to him, “So, worthy Vacchāyana, where are you coming from in the middle of the day?”
“Just now, good fellow, I’ve come from the presence of the ascetic Gotama.”
“What do you think of the ascetic Gotama’s lucidity of wisdom? Do you think he’s astute?”
“Mister, who am I to judge the ascetic Gotama’s lucidity of wisdom? You’d really have to be on the same level to judge his lucidity of wisdom.”
“Mister Vacchāyana praises the ascetic Gotama with high praise indeed.”
“Who am I to praise the ascetic Gotama? He is praised by the praised as the first among gods and humans. But for what reason are you so devoted to the ascetic Gotama?”
Pilotika’s four footprints
§3“Suppose that a skilled bull elephant tracker were to enter a bull elephant wood. There he’d see a large elephant’s footprint, long and broad. He would come to the conclusion, ‘This must be a big bull elephant.’ In the same way, because I saw four footprints of the ascetic Gotama I came to the conclusion, ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’
§4What four? Firstly, I see some clever aristocrats who are subtle, accomplished in the doctrines of others, hair-splitters. You’d think they live to demolish convictions with their intellect. They hear, ‘So, gentlemen, that ascetic Gotama will come down to such and such village or town.’ They formulate a question, thinking, ‘We’ll approach the ascetic Gotama and ask him this question. If he answers like this, we’ll refute him like that; and if he answers like that, we’ll refute him like this.’
When they hear that he has come down they approach him. The ascetic Gotama educates, encourages, fires up, and inspires them with a Dhamma talk. They don’t even get around to asking their question to the ascetic Gotama, so how could they refute his answer? Invariably, they become his disciples.
§7Furthermore, I see some clever ascetics who are subtle, accomplished in the doctrines of others, hair-splitters. You’d think they live to demolish convictions with their intellect. They formulate questions to refute the Buddha. But after hearing him teach, they don’t even ask their questions. Invariably, they ask the ascetic Gotama for the chance to go forth. And he gives them the going-forth. Soon after going forth, living withdrawn, diligent, keen, and resolute, they realize the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life. They live having achieved with their own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
They say, ‘We were almost lost! We almost perished! For we used to claim that we were ascetics, brahmins, and perfected ones, but we were none of these things. But now we really are ascetics, brahmins, and perfected ones!’
It’s because I saw these four footprints of the ascetic Gotama that I came to the conclusion, ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’”
Jānussoṇi visits the Buddha
§8When he had spoken, Jānussoṇi got down from his chariot, arranged his robe over one shoulder, raised his cupped palms toward the Buddha, and expressed this heartfelt sentiment three times: “Homage to that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha!”
§9Then the brahmin Jānussoṇi went up to the Buddha, and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side, and informed the Buddha of all he had discussed with the wanderer Pilotika.
When he had spoken, the Buddha said to him, “Brahmin, the simile of the elephant’s footprint is not yet completed in detail. As to how it is completed in detail, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
The tracker’s method
§10“Suppose a bull elephant tracker were to enter a bull elephant wood. There they’d see a large elephant’s footprint, long and broad. A skilled bull elephant tracker does not yet come to the conclusion, ‘This must be a big bull elephant.’ Why not? Because in an elephant wood there are dwarf cow elephants with big footprints, and this footprint might be one of theirs.
They keep following the track until they see a big footprint, long and broad, and traces high up. A skilled bull elephant tracker does not yet come to the conclusion, ‘This must be a big bull elephant.’ Why not? Because in an elephant wood there are tall lofty cow elephants with big footprints, and this footprint might be one of theirs.
They keep following the track until they see a big footprint, long and broad, and traces and tusk-marks high up. A skilled bull elephant tracker does not yet come to the conclusion, ‘This must be a big bull elephant.’ Why not? Because in an elephant wood there are tall matriarch cow elephants with big footprints, and this footprint might be one of theirs.
They keep following the track until they see a big footprint, long and broad, and traces, tusk-marks, and broken branches high up. And they see that bull elephant walking, standing, sitting, or lying down at the root of a tree or in the open. Then they’d come to the conclusion, ‘This is that big bull elephant.’
The teaching arises
§11In the same way, brahmin, a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those fit for training, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed. He realizes with his own insight this world — with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans — and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that’s good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely complete and pure.
Going forth
§12A householder hears that teaching, or a householder’s child, or someone reborn in a good family. They gain faith in the Realized One, and reflect, ‘Life at home is cramped and dirty, life gone forth is wide open. It’s not easy for someone living at home to lead the spiritual life utterly full and pure, like a polished shell. Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’
After some time they give up a large or small fortune, and a large or small family circle. They shave off hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
The graduated training: ethics
§13Once they’ve gone forth, they take up the training and livelihood of the mendicants. They give up killing living creatures, renouncing the rod and the sword. They’re scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings. They give up stealing. They give up unchastity. They give up lying. They give up backbiting. They give up harsh speech. They give up talking nonsense.
Contentment
§14They’re content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things. They’re like a bird: wherever it flies, wings are its only burden. In the same way, a mendicant is content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things.
When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, they experience a blameless happiness inside themselves.
Sense restraint
§15When they see a sight with their eyes, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of sight were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of sight, and achieving its restraint.
Mindfulness and situational awareness
§16They act with situational awareness when going out and coming back; when looking ahead and aside; when bending and extending the limbs; when bearing the outer robe, bowl and robes; when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; when urinating and defecating; when walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent.
Seclusion and the five hindrances
§17When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, this noble contentment, this noble sense restraint, and this noble mindfulness and situational awareness, they frequent a secluded lodging — a wilderness, the root of a tree, a hill, a ravine, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a forest, the open air, a heap of straw.
§18After the meal, they return from almsround, sit down cross-legged, set their body straight, and bring mindfulness to the present. Giving up covetousness for the world, they meditate with a heart rid of covetousness. Giving up ill will and malevolence, they meditate with a mind rid of ill will, full of sympathy for all living beings. Giving up dullness and drowsiness, they meditate perceiving light, mindful and aware. Giving up restlessness and remorse, they meditate without restlessness, their mind peaceful inside. Giving up doubt, they meditate having gone beyond doubt, not undecided about skillful qualities.
The absorptions — footprints, but not yet the conclusion
§19They give up these five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Then, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. This, brahmin, is that which is called ‘a footprint of the Realized One’ and also ‘a trace of the Realized One’ and also ‘a mark of the Realized One.’ But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion, ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’
§20Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one. This too is a footprint of the Realized One … But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion.
§21Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, a mendicant enters and remains in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ This too is a footprint … But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion.
§22Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, a mendicant enters and remains in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. This too is a footprint … But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion.
The three knowledges
§23When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this — purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable — they extend it toward recollection of past lives. They recollect many kinds of past lives, that is, one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths; many eons of the world contracting, many eons of the world expanding, many eons of the world contracting and expanding. They recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details. This too is a footprint of the Realized One … But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion.
§24When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this, they extend it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. With clairvoyance that is purified and surpasses the human, they understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds. This too is a footprint of the Realized One … But a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion.
Seeing the elephant
§25When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this, they extend it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements. They truly understand: ‘This is suffering … This is the origin of suffering … This is the cessation of suffering … This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.’ They truly understand: ‘These are defilements … This is the origin of defilements … This is the cessation of defilements … This is the practice that leads to the cessation of defilements.’
This, brahmin, is what is called ‘a footprint of the Realized One’ and also ‘a trace of the Realized One’ and also ‘a mark of the Realized One.’ At this point a noble disciple has not yet come to a conclusion, but they are coming to the conclusion, ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’
§26Knowing and seeing like this, their mind is freed from the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance. When they’re freed, they know they’re freed. They understand: ‘Rebirth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been done, there is nothing further for this place.’
This, brahmin, is what is called ‘a footprint of the Realized One’ and also ‘a trace of the Realized One’ and also ‘a mark of the Realized One.’ At this point a noble disciple has come to the conclusion, ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’ And it is at this point that the simile of the elephant’s footprint has been completed in detail.”
Jānussoṇi goes for refuge
§27When he had spoken, the brahmin Jānussoṇi said to the Buddha, “Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, worthy Gotama has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
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