How the Teaching Was Heard

Chapter One of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā: Treatise Section Three, a General Explanation of “Thus Have I Heard,” Fascicle Two

“Thus have I heard: at one time” will now be explained generally. Question: The Buddhas are omniscient. They are naturally without a teacher; they do not follow another's instruction, do not receive another's Dharma, do not use another's path, and do not hear from another and then teach Dharma. Why, then, does the sutra say, “Thus have I heard”?

Answer: It is as you say. The Buddha is omniscient and naturally without a teacher, so he should not hear Dharma from another and then teach it.

But the Buddha Dharma is not only what is spoken from the Buddha's own mouth. All true, wholesome speech and all subtle, beautiful speech in the world come forth from the Buddha Dharma.

As it says in the Buddha's Vinaya: “What is the Buddha Dharma? The Buddha Dharma may be spoken by five kinds of persons: first, spoken from the Buddha's own mouth; second, spoken by the Buddha's disciples; third, spoken by sages; fourth, spoken by devas; and fifth, spoken by transformation beings.”

Furthermore, in the Sutra on Śakra's Attainment of the Path, the Buddha told Kauśika, “All true, wholesome speech and all subtle, beautiful speech in the world come forth from my Dharma.”

As the “Verses in Praise of the Buddha” say: “All wholesome speech in every world comes forth from the Buddha Dharma. Well-spoken words without fault do not surpass the Buddha's words. Even if there are elsewhere good and faultless words, all of them are remnants of the Buddha Dharma. If there are good words among non-Buddhists, they are like a worm eating wood and accidentally forming written characters. Their doctrines of beginning, middle, and end refute themselves and one another; if gold comes from iron, who would believe it? It is like ox-head sandalwood growing among foul eranda trees; it is like sweet and beautiful fruit growing from bitter seeds. If someone is able to believe this, then that person believes that good words arise on their own in non-Buddhist scriptures. All good and true words come from the Buddha, just as sandalwood fragrance comes from Mount Malaya. Apart from Mount Malaya, sandalwood does not arise; in the same way, apart from the Buddha, true speech does not arise.”

Furthermore, “Thus have I heard” was spoken by Ānanda and other great disciples of the Buddha. Because it enters into the character of the Buddha Dharma, it is called Buddha Dharma.

When the Buddha was about to enter parinirvāṇa, he was lying with his head to the north between the twin śāla trees in the land of Kuśinagara. At that time, because Ānanda had not yet removed affection for relatives and had not yet become free from desire, his mind sank into an ocean of grief and he could not lift himself out. Then the elder Aniruddha said to Ānanda, “You are the one who guards the treasury of the Buddha Dharma. You should not sink into an ocean of grief like an ordinary person. All conditioned dharmas have the mark of impermanence; do not grieve. Moreover, the Buddha has placed the Dharma in your hands. Now, because you are distressed and confused, you are losing what has been entrusted to you. You should ask the Buddha: ‘After the Buddha enters parinirvāṇa, how should we practice the path? Who should be our teacher? How should we live together with the harsh-speaking Channa? What words should stand at the beginning of the Buddha's sutras?’ These and other matters concerning the future should be asked of the Buddha.”

When Ānanda heard this, his distressed mind cleared a little. Supported by the strength of mindfulness of the path, he went to the side of the Buddha's final bed and asked him about these matters.

The Buddha told Ānanda, “Whether I am present now or have passed away, rely on yourselves, rely on the Dharma, and do not rely on anything else. How does a monk rely on himself, rely on the Dharma, and not rely on anything else? Here, a monk observes the body internally, always with one-pointed wisdom, diligently cultivating vigor and removing greed and sorrow toward the world. Observing the body externally and observing the body internally and externally are also like this. The establishments of mindfulness with regard to feeling, mind, and dharmas are also like this. This is called a monk relying on himself, relying on the Dharma, and not relying on anything else. From today onward, the Prātimokṣa is the great teacher. Whatever bodily and verbal actions are taught in the Prātimokṣa should be practiced accordingly. As for the monk Channa, after I enter nirvāṇa, discipline him with the brahmā punishment. If his mind becomes gentle and subdued, he should be taught the Śāṇḍaka Kātyāyana Sutra, and then he can attain the path. Furthermore, the Dharma treasury I have gathered over three asaṃkhyeya kalpas should begin in this way: ‘Thus have I heard: at one time, the Buddha was in such-and-such a region, such-and-such a country, in such-and-such a forest.’ Why? Sutras of the Buddhas of the past all began with these words. Sutras of the Buddhas of the future will also begin with these words. Buddhas of the present, at the time of their final parinirvāṇa, also teach that these words should be used. After I enter parinirvāṇa, the sutras should also begin, ‘Thus have I heard: at one time.’”

Therefore one should know that these words were taught by the Buddha; they are not the Buddha himself saying, “Thus have I heard.” Since the Buddha is omniscient and naturally without a teacher, he should not say, “I heard.” If the Buddha himself had said, “Thus have I heard,” then one could raise this objection that there was something he did not know. But Ānanda asked the Buddha, and the Buddha taught these words. They are the disciple's words, “Thus have I heard,” and there is no fault.

Furthermore, because they wished the Buddha Dharma to remain long in the world, Elder Mahākāśyapa and the other arhats asked Ānanda, “Where did the Buddha first teach the Dharma? What Dharma did he teach?” Ānanda answered, “Thus have I heard: at one time, the Buddha was in the Deer Park of the Sages in the country of Vārāṇasī, teaching the noble truth of suffering to the five monks. I did not originally hear this from another; within the Dharma, through right recollection, I obtained eye, knowledge, illumination, and awakening.” This sutra should be explained fully there.

As the Sutra on the Collection of Dharma explains in detail: when the Buddha entered nirvāṇa, the earth shook in six ways, rivers flowed backward, violent winds suddenly arose, black clouds gathered on all sides, terrible thunder flashed with lightning, hail and rain fell in torrents, and meteors streaked everywhere. Lions and fierce beasts roared and cried out, and devas and humans all wailed loudly. Devas and humans all said, “How quickly the Buddha has entered nirvāṇa! The eye of the world is extinguished!” At that time, all grasses, trees, and medicinal trees split open at once in their flowers and leaves. All the kings of Mount Sumeru shook and tilted; ocean waters surged; the great earth quaked; cliffs and mountains collapsed. Trees broke and fell, smoke rose in all four directions, and it was extremely terrifying. Ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams all became disturbed and muddy, and comets appeared in the daytime. People wept, devas grieved, and heavenly maidens choked with sorrow as tears flowed down. Learners were silent and unhappy, while those beyond learning reflected that all conditioned dharmas are impermanent. In this way, devas, humans, yakṣas, rākṣasas, gandharvas, kiṃnaras, mahoragas, dragons, and others were all deeply grieved.

The arhats had crossed the ocean of aging, sickness, and death. They thought: “We have already crossed the river of ordinary people's affection and attachment. The bond of aging, sickness, and death has already been torn apart. Seeing the four great snakes within the basket of the body, we now enter nirvāṇa without remainder.”

The great arhats each followed their own intention. In mountains, forests, flowing springs, ravines, and valleys, they abandoned their bodies everywhere and entered parinirvāṇa. Other arhats flew away through the sky, like kings of geese, displaying many kinds of spiritual power so that people's minds would become faithful and pure; only then did they enter parinirvāṇa. The devas of the six desire heavens up to the Śubhakṛtsna heavens saw that all the arhats were entering extinction, and each thought: “The sun of the Buddha has already set, and the light of his disciples, with their many meditative concentrations, liberations, and wisdom, is also extinguished. These beings have many illnesses of desire, anger, and delusion. Now that the physicians of Dharma are quickly entering extinction, who will treat them? The disciple-lotuses born in the great ocean of immeasurable wisdom have now withered. The Dharma tree is broken, the Dharma cloud has scattered. The great wise elephant king has departed, and the elephant calves follow him. The merchants of Dharma have passed away; from whom can we seek the jewels of Dharma?” As a verse says: “The Buddha has forever entered the stillness of nirvāṇa; the assembly who extinguished the fetters has also passed away. The world is thus empty of wisdom; the darkness of delusion increases, and the lamp of wisdom is extinguished.”

At that time the devas bowed at Mahākāśyapa's feet and spoke this verse: “Elder, desire, anger, and conceit have been removed. Your form is like a column of purple gold. Above and below, you are upright, dignified, wondrous, and peerless; your bright, pure eyes are like lotus flowers.”

After praising him in this way, they said to Mahākāśyapa, “Great Virtuous Kāśyapa, do you know? The Dharma ship is about to break apart, the Dharma city is about to collapse, the Dharma ocean is about to dry up, the Dharma banner is about to fall, and the Dharma lamp is about to go out. Those who teach the Dharma are about to depart, those who practice the path are gradually becoming few, and the power of evil people is growing stronger. With great compassion, you should establish the Buddha Dharma.”

At that time Mahākāśyapa's mind was like the great ocean, clear, still, and unmoving. After a long while he answered, “What you have said is good. It is truly as you say: before long the world will be without wisdom, blind, and dark.” Then Mahākāśyapa silently accepted their request. The devas bowed at Mahākāśyapa's feet and suddenly disappeared, each returning to his own place.

At that time Mahākāśyapa thought, “How can I now cause this Buddha Dharma, so difficult to obtain even over three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, to remain long?” After thinking in this way, he said, “I know how this Dharma can be made to remain long. We should gather together the sūtras, the abhidharma, and the vinaya, making the Three Dharma Treasuries. In this way the Buddha Dharma can remain long, and people of future generations can receive and practice it. Why? Because in life after life, through diligent hardship and compassionate care for beings, the Buddha learned this Dharma and taught it to people. We too should receive and apply the Buddha's instruction, proclaiming it widely and opening beings to transformation.”

After Mahākāśyapa had spoken these words, he stood on the summit of Mount Sumeru, struck the bronze gaṇḍī, and spoke this verse: “Disciples of the Buddha! If you are mindful of the Buddha, you should repay the Buddha's kindness. Do not enter nirvāṇa!”

The sound of that gaṇḍī and Mahākāśyapa's voice reached throughout the three-thousand great-thousand world system, and all heard and knew it. All disciples who had attained spiritual power came and gathered at Mahākāśyapa's place. At that time Mahākāśyapa told the assembly, “The Buddha Dharma is about to perish. Over three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, the Buddha underwent many kinds of hardship, compassionately caring for beings, and learned this Dharma. Now that the Buddha has entered parinirvāṇa, the disciples who know the Dharma, preserve the Dharma, and recite the Dharma are also following the Buddha into extinction. The Dharma is now about to perish. Future beings are deeply pitiable: they will lose the eye of wisdom and become foolish, blind, and dark. Because the Buddha, with great loving-kindness and compassion, took pity on beings, we should receive and apply the Buddha's instruction. We must wait until the scripture treasury has been gathered; after that, each may enter extinction as he wishes.”

All who had come to the assembly accepted the instruction and remained. At that time Mahākāśyapa selected one thousand people. Except for the virtuous Ānanda, all were arhats. They had attained the six spiritual powers, shared liberation, and unobstructed liberation. They had all attained the three knowledges; they were free in meditative concentration, able to enter samādhis in forward and reverse order, all without obstruction. They recited the Three Baskets, knew Buddhist and non-Buddhist scriptures, and had also fully read and understood the eighteen kinds of great scriptures of the non-Buddhist schools. They were all able to debate and subdue those of different teachings.

Question: At that time there were countless arhats such as these. Why did Mahākāśyapa select exactly one thousand people and not more?

Answer: King Bimbisāra had attained the path, and his eighty-four thousand officials had each also attained the path. At that time the king ordered the palace to constantly prepare meals and offer them to one thousand people. King Ajātaśatru did not discontinue this practice. Then Mahākāśyapa thought, “If we always go on almsround, non-Buddhists may forcefully come and challenge us with questions, causing the Dharma work to be neglected. Since Rājagṛha constantly provides food for one thousand people, we can stay there and gather the scripture treasury.” For this reason he selected one thousand people and could not take more.

At that time Mahākāśyapa, together with the one thousand people, went to Vulture Peak at Rājagṛha and told King Ajātaśatru, “Provide food for us and send it every day. We are now gathering the scripture treasury and cannot go elsewhere.”

There they entered the three-month rains retreat. On the fifteenth day at the beginning, when the precepts were recited, the harmonious Saṅgha assembled. Mahākāśyapa entered meditative concentration and, with the divine eye, observed who in the assembly still had afflictions not yet exhausted and should be expelled. Only Ānanda had not yet exhausted them; the other nine hundred ninety-nine had ended all outflows and were pure and stainless. Mahākāśyapa arose from meditation, took Ānanda by the hand in the midst of the assembly, led him out, and said, “The scripture treasury is being gathered within this pure assembly. Your fetters have not yet been exhausted, so you should not remain here.”

At that time Ānanda felt ashamed and wept sadly. He thought to himself, “For twenty-five years I attended the World-Honored One, serving at his side, and I never experienced such distress. The Buddha truly had great virtue: he was compassionate, forbearing, and patient.” After thinking this, he said to Mahākāśyapa, “I have the ability and could have attained the path long ago. But according to the Dharma of the Buddhas, an arhat may not serve at the side of a Buddha as attendant. For this reason, I left a remainder of fetters and did not completely cut them off.”

Mahākāśyapa said, “You have another fault. The Buddha's intention was not to allow women to leave home, but you earnestly urged and requested him, and the Buddha allowed them to practice the path. Because of this, the Buddha's true Dharma will decline after five hundred years. This is your duṣkṛta offense.” Ānanda said, “I had compassion for Gautamī. Also, the Dharma of the Buddhas of the three times all has four assemblies. How could my Buddha Śākyamuni alone not have them?”

Mahākāśyapa again said, “When the Buddha was about to enter nirvāṇa near the city of Kuśinagara, his back hurt. He folded his uttarāsaṅga robe in four layers, lay down on it, and said to you, ‘I need water.’ You did not provide it. This is your duṣkṛta offense.” Ānanda answered, “At that time, five hundred carts crossed through the stream, making the water muddy. For this reason, I did not take it.” Mahākāśyapa again said, “Even if the water was muddy, the Buddha had great spiritual power and could have made the muddy water of the great ocean pure. Why did you not give it to him? This is your fault. Go and confess the duṣkṛta offense.”

Mahākāśyapa again said, “The Buddha asked you, ‘If someone has well cultivated the four bases of spiritual power, that person can remain alive for a kalpa or a little less than a kalpa. The Buddha has well cultivated the four bases of spiritual power and, if he wishes, can remain alive for a kalpa or a little less than a kalpa.’ You remained silent and did not answer. He asked you three times, and still you remained silent. If you had answered the Buddha, ‘The Buddha has well cultivated the four bases of spiritual power and should remain for a kalpa or a little less than a kalpa,’ then because of you the Buddha, the World-Honored One, would not have entered nirvāṇa early. This is your duṣkṛta offense.” Ānanda said, “Māra covered my mind; therefore I said nothing. It was not from an evil mind that I failed to answer the Buddha.”

Mahākāśyapa again said, “When you folded the Buddha's saṅghāṭī robe, you stepped on it with your foot. This is your duṣkṛta offense.” Ānanda said, “At that time a great wind arose, and there was no one to help me hold the robe. The wind blew it down under my foot. It was not because I was disrespectful that I stepped on the Buddha's robe.”

Mahākāśyapa again said, “After the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, you showed women the Buddha's hidden-organ mark. How shameful! This is your duṣkṛta offense.” Ānanda said, “At that time I thought, ‘If these women see the Buddha's hidden-organ mark, they will feel ashamed of the female form, wish to obtain a male body, cultivate the marks of a Buddha, and plant roots of merit.’ For this reason, I showed it to the women. I did not deliberately break the precepts out of shamelessness.”

Mahākāśyapa said, “You have six kinds of duṣkṛta offenses. You should confess them all before the Saṅgha.” Ānanda said, “Yes. I will follow the instruction of Elder Mahākāśyapa and the Saṅgha.” At that time Ānanda knelt upright, joined his palms, bared his right shoulder, removed his leather sandals, and confessed the six kinds of duṣkṛta offenses. In the midst of the Saṅgha, Mahākāśyapa took Ānanda by the hand, led him out, and said to him, “Cut off your outflows completely, and then come in. As long as the remaining fetters are not yet exhausted, do not come.” Having said this, he closed the door himself.

At that time the arhats discussed, “Who is able to gather the Vinaya Dharma treasury?” Elder Aniruddha said, “Śāriputra was a second Buddha. He had an excellent disciple named Gavāṃpati, whose name means ‘Ox-Chewer.’ He is gentle, refined, harmonious, and elegant; he always lives in seclusion, keeping his mind still and at peace. He is able to understand the Vinaya Dharma treasury. He is now living in the Śirīṣa Tree Grove in the heavens. Send a messenger to invite him.”

Mahākāśyapa said to the junior monk, “It is your turn to serve as messenger for the Saṅgha.” The junior monk said, “What errand does the Saṅgha have?” Mahākāśyapa said, “The Saṅgha sends you to the Śirīṣa Tree Grove in the heavens, to the dwelling place of the arhat Gavāṃpati.” This monk joyfully and eagerly accepted the Saṅgha's order and said to Mahākāśyapa, “When I arrive at the arhat Gavāṃpati's place, what should I say?” Mahākāśyapa said, “After you arrive, tell Gavāṃpati: ‘Mahākāśyapa and the other arhats whose outflows are exhausted have all gathered in Jambudvīpa. The Saṅgha has a great Dharma matter. Please come quickly.’”

The junior monk bowed with his head and face at the feet of the Saṅgha and circled to the right three times. Like a garuḍa bird, he flew up into the sky and went to Gavāṃpati's place. He bowed with his head and face, and said to Gavāṃpati, “Gentle and good Great Virtuous One, few in desires and content, always dwelling in meditative concentration, Mahākāśyapa sends greetings and has this message: the Saṅgha now has a great Dharma matter. Please come down quickly and see the jewel-gathering of the assembly.” At that time Gavāṃpati felt doubt arise in his mind and said to the monk, “Is the Saṅgha calling me because there is a dispute? Has no one split the Saṅgha? Has the sun of the Buddha entered extinction?” The monk said, “It is truly as you say. The Great Teacher, the Buddha, has already entered extinction.” Gavāṃpati said, “The Buddha has entered extinction so quickly! The eye of the world is extinguished. Where now is my preceptor, Śāriputra, the commander who was able to follow the Buddha in turning the wheel of Dharma?” The monk answered, “He entered nirvāṇa earlier.” Gavāṃpati said, “The Great Teacher and the Dharma commander are each separated from us. What can be done? Where is Mahāmaudgalyāyana now?” The monk said, “He too has entered extinction.” Gavāṃpati said, “The Buddha Dharma is about to scatter. Great beings have passed away; beings are pitiable.” He asked, “What is Elder Ānanda doing now?” The monk said, “After the Buddha entered extinction, Elder Ānanda was grieving, weeping, confused, and unable to compose himself.” Gavāṃpati said, “Ānanda is distressed because he still has the fetter of attachment; separation gives rise to suffering. And what of Rāhula?” The monk answered, “Because Rāhula attained arhatship, he has no grief and no sorrow; he only contemplates the impermanent marks of dharmas.” Gavāṃpati said, “Attachment, which is difficult to cut off, has already been cut off, so there is no grief or sorrow.” Gavāṃpati then said, “Having lost the Great Teacher free from desire, what purpose is there for me to remain in this Śirīṣa Tree Grove? My preceptor and the Great Teacher have both entered extinction. I can no longer descend again to Jambudvīpa. I will remain here and enter parinirvāṇa.”

After saying these words, he entered meditative concentration and rose into the sky. His body emitted light; he also produced water and fire, touched the sun and moon with his hands, and displayed many kinds of spiritual transformations. From his own mind he produced fire that burned his body; from his body came water, flowing down in four streams until it reached Mahākāśyapa. From within the water there was a voice speaking this verse: “Gavāṃpati bows his head in homage to the excellent and foremost great virtuous Saṅgha. Hearing that the Buddha has entered extinction, I follow him and depart, like a great elephant departing and the elephant calf following after.”

At that time the junior monk took Gavāṃpati's robe and bowl and returned to the Saṅgha.

During this interval, Ānanda contemplated dharmas and sought to exhaust his remaining outflows. That night he sat in meditation and walked in meditation, earnestly seeking the path. Ānanda had much wisdom but little power of concentration, and for this reason he did not immediately attain the path. When concentration and wisdom are equal, attainment can come quickly. As the latter part of the night was about to pass, he was utterly exhausted and lay down to rest. As he reclined toward his pillow, before his head reached the pillow, he suddenly awakened. It was like a flash of lightning appearing, by which someone in darkness sees the path. In this way Ānanda entered vajra concentration and shattered all the mountains of affliction. He attained the three knowledges, the six spiritual powers, and shared liberation, becoming a powerful arhat.

That very night he went to the door of the Saṅgha hall, knocked, and called out. Mahākāśyapa asked, “Who is knocking?” He answered, “I am Ānanda.” Mahākāśyapa said, “Why have you come?” Ānanda said, “Tonight I have exhausted all the outflows.” Mahākāśyapa said, “I will not open the door for you. Come in through the keyhole.” Ānanda answered, “Very well.” Then, by spiritual power, he entered through the keyhole, bowed at the feet of the Saṅgha, and confessed, “Mahākāśyapa, please do not reproach me again.”

Mahākāśyapa placed his hand on Ānanda's head and said, “I did this deliberately for you, so that you would attain the path. You should have no resentment; I am the same toward you, because you have realized it for yourself. It is like drawing with one's hand in empty space: nothing is stained or attached. The mind of an arhat is also like this; among all dharmas, it attains nonattachment. Return to your original seat.”

At that time the Saṅgha again discussed, “Gavāṃpati has already entered extinction. Who else is able to gather the Dharma treasury?” Elder Aniruddha said, “Elder Ānanda, among the Buddha's disciples, always attended closely upon the Buddha. He heard the sutras and was able to retain them. The Buddha often praised him. Ānanda is able to gather the sutra treasury.” At that time Elder Mahākāśyapa placed his hand on Ānanda's head and said, “The Buddha entrusted you and charged you to preserve the Dharma treasury. You should repay the Buddha's kindness. Where did the Buddha first teach the Dharma? The Buddha's great disciples who were able to guard the Dharma treasury have all entered extinction; only you remain. Now you should follow the Buddha's mind and, out of compassion for beings, gather the Buddha's Dharma treasury.”

At that time Ānanda bowed to the Saṅgha and sat on the lion seat. Then Mahākāśyapa spoke this verse: “The Buddha, the holy lion king; Ānanda is the Buddha's son. Sitting there upon the lion seat, he looks upon the assembly with no Buddha present. Such a great and virtuous assembly, without the Buddha, has lost its majesty, like the sky when there is no moon: though there are stars, it is not adorned. You, person of great wisdom, speak. You, Buddha's son, should proclaim: where did the Buddha first teach? Now you should set it forth.”

At that time Elder Ānanda single-mindedly joined his palms, faced the direction of the Buddha's nirvāṇa, and said: “When the Buddha first taught the Dharma, I did not see it at that time. Thus it was handed down and heard: the Buddha was in Vārāṇasī. For the five bhikṣus, the Buddha first opened the gate of deathlessness and taught the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths: the truth of suffering, the truth of its arising, the truth of its cessation, and the truth of the path. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya was the first to see the path, and eighty thousand devas also entered the trace of the path.”

After the thousand arhats heard these words, they rose into the sky to the height of seven tāla trees. They all said, “Alas! The power of impermanence is great. We ourselves saw the Buddha teach the Dharma, and now it is spoken as ‘I heard.’” Then they spoke this verse: “I saw the marks of the Buddha's body, like a mountain of purple gold. Those wondrous marks and many virtues are gone; only the name remains alone. Therefore one should use skillful means, seek to leave the three realms, diligently gather roots of goodness, for nirvāṇa is the supreme happiness.”

At that time Elder Aniruddha spoke this verse: “Alas, the world is impermanent, like the moon in water or the plantain tree. Though his merit filled the three realms, it has been destroyed by the wind of impermanence.”

At that time Mahākāśyapa again spoke this verse: “The power of impermanence is very great. Foolish or wise, poor or rich, noble or lowly, those who have attained the path and those who have not: none can escape it. It is not overcome by clever words or wondrous treasures, not by deception, force, or dispute. Like fire burning all things, the mark of impermanence is simply the nature of dharmas.”

Mahākāśyapa said to Ānanda, “From the Sutra on Turning the Dharma Wheel through the Great Parinirvāṇa, gather them and arrange them as the Four Āgamas: the Ekottarika Āgama, the Madhyama Āgama, the Dīrgha Āgama, and the Saṃyukta Āgama. This is called the sutra Dharma treasury.”

The arhats then asked again, “Who can clearly gather the Vinaya Dharma treasury?” They all said, “Elder Upāli is foremost in upholding the Vinaya among the five hundred arhats. We now invite him.” They then invited him, saying, “Rise and sit upon the lion seat. Tell us where the Buddha first taught the Vinaya and established the precepts.” Upāli accepted the instruction of the Saṅgha, sat upon the lion seat, and said, “Thus have I heard: at one time the Buddha was in Vaiśālī. At that time Sudinna, the son of the elder Kalandaka, was the first to commit sexual misconduct. Because of this cause and condition, the first great offense was established. The meaning of the two hundred and fifty precepts was arranged into three divisions: the Seven Dharmas, the Eight Dharmas, the Bhikṣuṇī Vinaya, the Ekottara, the Questions of Upāli, the Miscellaneous Division, and the Good Division. These and other such eighty divisions made up the Vinaya treasury.”

The arhats again reflected, “Who can clearly gather the Abhidharma treasury?” They thought, “Elder Ānanda is foremost in understanding the meaning of the sutras among the five hundred arhats. We now invite him.” They then invited him, saying, “Rise and sit upon the lion seat. Where did the Buddha first teach the Abhidharma?” Ānanda accepted the instruction of the Saṅgha, sat upon the lion seat, and said, “Thus have I heard: at one time the Buddha was in the city of Śrāvastī. At that time the Buddha told the bhikṣus, ‘Those who have five fears, five offenses, and five enmities, if they do not remove and extinguish them, because of these causes and conditions, in this life they undergo immeasurable suffering in body and mind, and in later lives they fall into bad destinies. Those who do not have these five fears, five offenses, and five enmities, because of these causes and conditions, in this life experience many kinds of bodily and mental happiness, and in later lives are born in happy places among the devas. What are the five fears that should be avoided? First, killing; second, stealing; third, sexual misconduct; fourth, false speech; and fifth, drinking alcohol.’” These and other such teachings are called the Abhidharma treasury.

When the three Dharma treasuries had been gathered, devas, spirits, dragons, and heavenly maidens made many kinds of offerings. Because they were making offerings to the Dharma, they rained down heavenly flowers, fragrances, banners, canopies, and heavenly garments. Then this verse was spoken: “Out of compassion for the world, they gathered and compiled the Dharma of the three treasuries. The One of Ten Powers, the All-Wise One, taught wisdom, the lamp that dispels ignorance.”

Question: Where did the Eight Skandhas Abhidharma, the Six-Part Abhidharma, and other such works come from?

Answer: When the Buddha was in the world, the Dharma had no contradiction or error. After the Buddha entered extinction, at the time of the first gathering of the Dharma, it was also as though the Buddha were present. One hundred years later, King Aśoka held the Pañcavarṣika great assembly. Because the great Dharma masters differed in their discussions and analyses, separate sectarian names arose.

From that time onward, the tradition was transmitted until it reached a brahmin practitioner of the Kātyāyana lineage. He had sharp wisdom and keen faculties, and had fully read the scriptures of the three treasuries as well as inner and outer texts. Because he wished to explain the Buddha's words, he composed the Jñānaprasthāna in Eight Skandhas; its first chapter is “the supreme worldly dharma.” Later disciples, because later people could not fully understand the Eight Skandhas, composed the Vibhāṣā.

Some say: Within the Six-Part Abhidharma, the third part, consisting of eight chapters and called the “Division Discerning Worldly Places,” was made from the Lokasthāna Sutra as the third part of the six, and was composed by Maudgalyāyana. In the six parts, the first part has eight chapters: four chapters were composed by Bodhisattva Vasumitra, and four chapters were composed by arhats from Kashmir. The remaining five parts were composed by various teachers of discussion and analysis.

Some say: When the Buddha was in the world, Śāriputra, in order to explain the Buddha's words, composed an Abhidharma. Later, practitioners of the Vātsīputrīya school and others recited it, and down to the present it is called the Śāriputra Abhidharma.

Mahākātyāyana, when the Buddha was in the world, explained the Buddha's words and composed the Kunle, meaning “Basket Treasury,” which has continued to circulate in South India down to the present. All of these exist because they broadly explain the Buddha's words.

For example, in explaining the five precepts, one asks: how many are material, and how many are nonmaterial? How many are visible, and how many are not visible? How many have resistance, and how many do not have resistance? How many are contaminated, and how many are uncontaminated? How many are conditioned, and how many are unconditioned? How many have karmic result, and how many have no karmic result? How many are wholesome, and how many are unwholesome? How many are determinate, and how many are indeterminate? Analyses such as these are called Abhidharma.

Furthermore, there are seven latent tendencies: the latent tendency of desire and attachment, the latent tendency of anger, the latent tendency of attachment to existence, the latent tendency of conceit, the latent tendency of ignorance, the latent tendency of views, and the latent tendency of doubt. Of these seven latent tendencies, how many are bound to the desire realm, how many to the form realm, and how many to the formless realm? How many are abandoned by seeing the truths, and how many are abandoned by cultivation? How many are abandoned by seeing suffering, seeing arising, seeing cessation, and seeing the path? How many are pervasive, and how many are not pervasive?

The ten knowledges are: Dharma knowledge, inferential knowledge, worldly knowledge, knowledge of others' minds, knowledge of suffering, knowledge of arising, knowledge of cessation, knowledge of the path, knowledge of exhaustion, and knowledge of nonarising. Of these ten knowledges, how many are contaminated, and how many are uncontaminated? How many are conditioned, and how many are unconditioned? How many take contaminated objects, and how many take uncontaminated objects? How many take conditioned objects, and how many take unconditioned objects? How many take the desire realm, the form realm, or the formless realm as object? How many take what is not bound as object? How many are cultivated in the uninterrupted path, and how many are cultivated in the path of liberation? When the four fruits are attained, how many are gained, and how many are lost?

To distinguish and analyze all dharmas in these ways is also called Abhidharma.

There are three kinds of Abhidharma: first, the Abhidharma body and its meaning, briefly stated in 320,000 words; second, the Six-Part Abhidharma, briefly stated in 360,000 words; and third, the Kunle, briefly stated in 320,000 words.

The Kunle broadly compares many matters and groups them according to kind; it is not Abhidharma. This completes the brief explanation of the overall meaning of “Thus have I heard: at one time.”

Chapter One of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā: Explanation of Bhagavān, Section Four

Sutra: Bhagavān.

Treatise: This will now be explained.

Explanation: What is meant by Bhagavān?

As for Bhagavān, bhaga means “virtue,” and va means “having.” Thus it means “one who has virtue.”

Furthermore, bhaga means “distinguishing,” and va means “skillful.” Because he skillfully distinguishes the general characteristics and particular characteristics of all dharmas, he is called Bhagavān.

Furthermore, bhaga means “renown,” and va means “having.” Thus it means “one who has renown.” No one has attained renown like the Buddha. Wheel-turning sage kings, Śakra, Brahmā, and the world-protectors do not equal the Buddha, much less ordinary people.

Why is this so? A wheel-turning sage king is still bound together with the fetters; the Buddha has already departed from the fetters. A wheel-turning sage king is sunk in the mud of birth, aging, sickness, and death; the Buddha has already crossed beyond it. A wheel-turning sage king is a servant of affection and craving; the Buddha has left them forever. A wheel-turning sage king dwells amid the calamities of the wilderness of the world; the Buddha has departed from them. A wheel-turning sage king dwells in the darkness of ignorance; the Buddha dwells in the foremost light. A wheel-turning sage king, at most, rules the four continents; the Buddha rules immeasurable worlds. A wheel-turning sage king is sovereign over wealth; the Buddha is sovereign over his mind. A wheel-turning sage king seeks heavenly pleasure; the Buddha is not attached even to the pleasure of the peak of existence. A wheel-turning sage king seeks happiness from others; the Buddha is inwardly happy in his own mind.

For these reasons, the Buddha surpasses the wheel-turning sage king. The same is true in relation to the other beings such as Śakra, Brahmā, and the world-protectors; they are only slightly superior to a wheel-turning sage king.

Furthermore, bhaga means “breaking,” and va means “able.” Because this person is able to break desire, anger, and delusion, he is called Bhagavān.

Question: Arhats and pratyekabuddhas also break desire, anger, and delusion. How are they different from the Buddha?

Answer: Although arhats and pratyekabuddhas have broken the three poisons, their residual scent is not exhausted. It is like fragrance in a vessel: although the fragrance has gone out, its remaining scent is still there. It is also like grass, wood, and firewood burning and producing smoke: the charcoal and ashes are not exhausted because the power of the fire is weak. The Buddha has forever exhausted the three poisons without remainder. This is like the fire at the end of a kalpa burning Mount Sumeru, so that the whole earth is completely exhausted, with no smoke and no charcoal. Śāriputra still had a residual scent of anger, Nanda still had a residual scent of desire, and Pilindavatsa still had a residual scent of conceit. It is like a person who has been bound in chains: when first released, he still cannot walk freely.

At that time the Buddha rose from meditation and walked in meditation. Rāhula followed the Buddha as he walked. The Buddha asked Rāhula, “Why are you thin and weak?” Rāhula answered the Buddha with a verse: “If a person eats oil, he gains strength. If he eats ghee, he gains good complexion. If one eats sesame dregs and vegetables, one has neither complexion nor strength. Great Virtuous World-Honored One, you yourself should know.”

The Buddha asked Rāhula, “Who is the senior elder in this assembly?” Rāhula answered, “My preceptor Śāriputra.” The Buddha said, “Śāriputra eats impure food.” At that time, when Śāriputra heard these words indirectly, he immediately vomited up his food and made this vow: “From this day forward, I will no longer accept invitations from others.”

At that time King Prasenajit, the elder Sudatta, and others came to Śāriputra and said to him, “The Buddha does not accept invitations without reason, and now the Great Virtuous Śāriputra also does not accept invitations. How can we laypeople gain great faith and purity?” Śāriputra said, “My great teacher, the Buddha, said, ‘Śāriputra eats impure food.’ Now I cannot accept invitations from others.” Then Prasenajit and the others went to the Buddha and said to him, “The Buddha does not always accept invitations, and Śāriputra also does not accept invitations. How can our minds gain great faith? May the Buddha command Śāriputra to accept invitations again.” The Buddha said, “This person's mind is firm and cannot be moved.”

At that time the Buddha drew upon a past-life cause and condition: “Long ago there was a king who was bitten by a poisonous snake, and the king was about to die. He summoned skilled physicians and ordered them to cure the snake poison. At that time the physicians said, ‘Make the snake suck the poison back, and only then will the poison be exhausted.’ The physicians each performed spells, and the snake that had bitten the king came to the king's place. The physicians piled up firewood and lit a fire, commanding the snake, ‘Suck back your poison. If you do not, you must enter this fire.’ The poisonous snake thought, ‘Since I have already spit out the poison, how can I suck it back? This would be worse than death.’ Having fixed its thought, it immediately entered the fire. At that time, the poisonous snake was Śāriputra. Life after life, his mind has been firm and cannot be moved.”

Furthermore, Elder Pilindavatsa often suffered from pain in his eyes. When he went for alms, he often had to cross the Ganges. When he reached the bank of the Ganges, he would snap his fingers and say, “Little maidservant, stop! Do not flow!” The water would immediately divide, allowing him to cross for alms. The goddess of the Ganges went to the Buddha and said to him, “The Buddha's disciple Pilindavatsa constantly insults me, saying, ‘Little maidservant, stop! Do not let the water flow!’”

The Buddha told Pilindavatsa to apologize to the goddess of the Ganges. Pilindavatsa immediately joined his palms and said to the goddess, “Little maidservant, do not be angry. I now apologize to you.” At that time the assembly laughed and said, “How can he apologize and yet insult her again?” The Buddha said to the goddess of the Ganges, “Did you see Pilindavatsa join his palms and apologize? Although these words are spoken, his apology has no conceit in it. You should understand that this is not malicious. For five hundred lives this person was always born into brahmin families, always considering himself noble and looking down on others. It is only speech from former habit; in his mind there is no conceit.”

In this way, although arhats have cut off the fetters and latent tendencies, they still have residual traces. As for all buddhas, world-honored ones, if one person cuts one of their arms with a knife and another person smears one of their arms with sandalwood paste, they regard them like the left and right eyes. Their minds have no hatred or affection. Therefore they are forever without residual traces.

Ciñcā, the brahmin woman, used a wooden bowl to slander the Buddha. In the midst of the great assembly she said, “You made me pregnant. Why are you not concerned? Give me clothing and food. How can you be so shameless, deceiving and confusing others?” At that time, five hundred brahmin teachers and others all raised their hands and cried out, “Yes, yes! We know this matter.” At that time the Buddha's complexion did not change, and he showed no shame. The matter was immediately exposed; the earth shook greatly, and the devas made offerings, scattering many famous flowers and praising the Buddha's virtue. The Buddha showed no sign of joy.

Furthermore, when the Buddha ate horse barley, he had no sorrow or distress. When a heavenly king offered food complete with a hundred flavors, he did not take delight in it. His one mind was without duality.

In all such matters, including many kinds of food and drink, clothing, bedding, praise and blame, contempt and respect, his mind was no different. It is like true gold: whether burned, forged, beaten, or polished, it neither increases nor decreases.

For this reason, although arhats have cut off the fetters and attained the path, they still have residual traces and cannot be called Bhagavān.

Question: Does Bhagavān have only this one name, or are there other names?

Answer: The Buddha's virtues are immeasurable, and his names are also immeasurable. This name selects one of the great names because many people recognize it. There are also other names, such as Tathāgata.

What is meant by Tathāgata? He understands according to the characteristics of dharmas, and he speaks according to the characteristics of dharmas. Just as all buddhas come by the path of peace and security, this Buddha also comes in this way, and he no longer goes into any later existence. Therefore he is called Tathāgata.

He is also called Arhat. What is meant by Arhat? Ara means “thief,” and ha means “to kill.” Thus it means “killer of thieves.” As a verse says: “The Buddha uses patience as armor, diligence as strong mail, moral discipline as a great horse, meditation as a fine bow, and wisdom as good arrows. Outwardly he breaks the army of Māra; inwardly he extinguishes the thieves of affliction. This is called Arhat.”

Furthermore, a means “not,” and raha means “birth.” Thus it means “not born.” The seeds in the Buddha's mind do not arise in the field of a later life, because the husk of ignorance has fallen away.

Furthermore, Arhat means “worthy of offerings.” Because the Buddha has completely removed all fetters and latent tendencies and has attained all wisdom, he is worthy to receive offerings from all beings in heaven and on earth. For this reason, the Buddha is called Arhat.

He is also called Samyaksaṃbuddha. What is meant by Samyaksaṃbuddha? Samyak means “right,” sam means “pervasively,” and buddha means “knowing.” Thus it means rightly and pervasively knowing all dharmas.

Question: What is right and pervasive knowing?

Answer: He knows suffering according to the characteristic of suffering; he knows arising according to the characteristic of arising; he knows cessation according to the characteristic of cessation; and he knows the path according to the characteristic of the path. This is called Samyaksaṃbuddha.

Furthermore, he knows the true, unbroken character of all dharmas: it neither increases nor decreases. What is meant by the unbroken character? It is where the activity of mind ceases and the path of language is cut off. It goes beyond all dharmas and, like the character of nirvāṇa, is unmoving. For this reason, he is called Samyaksaṃbuddha.

Furthermore, he completely knows the names of all worlds in the ten directions, the names of beings included within the six destinies, the past-life causes and conditions of beings, their places of birth in future lives, the mental characteristics of all beings throughout the ten directions, their fetters and latent tendencies, their roots of goodness, and their ways of liberation. He completely knows all dharmas such as these. This is called Samyaksaṃbuddha.

He is also called Vidyā-caraṇa-sampanna, which means “complete in knowledge and conduct.”

What is meant by complete in knowledge and conduct?

Knowledge of past lives, the divine eye, and the exhaustion of outflows are called the three knowledges.

Question: What difference is there between spiritual power and knowledge?

Answer: Simply knowing matters of past lives is called spiritual power; knowing the causes, conditions, actions, and karma of the past is called knowledge. Simply knowing that one dies here and is born there is called spiritual power; knowing that the causes and conditions of actions meet without being lost is called knowledge. Simply exhausting the fetters and latent tendencies, without knowing whether there will be further birth or no further birth, is called spiritual power; if one knows that the outflows are exhausted and that there will be no further birth, this is called knowledge. These three knowledges are attained by great arhats and great pratyekabuddhas.

Question: If this is so, how are they different from the Buddha?

Answer: Although they have attained the three knowledges, their knowledge is not complete. The Buddha is complete in all of them. This is the difference.

Question: How are they incomplete, and how is the Buddha complete?

Answer: The knowledge of past lives possessed by arhats and pratyekabuddhas can know their own lives and the lives of others, but it still cannot know them pervasively. Some arhats know one life, or two lives, three lives, ten, a hundred, a thousand, or ten thousand kalpas, and even up to eighty thousand kalpas; beyond that they cannot know further. Therefore it is incomplete. Their divine-eye knowledge of future lives is also like this. In a single thought-moment, when phenomena arise, abide, and cease, the Buddha knows the portions of the fetters and latent tendencies: when they arise, they are like this; when they abide, they are like this; when they cease, they are like this. He fully understands the fetters and latent tendencies abandoned in the patience toward the Dharma of suffering and the knowledge of the Dharma of suffering. He knows liberation from such fetters and latent tendencies, the corresponding liberation through conditioned dharmas, and the corresponding liberation through unconditioned dharmas, up to the fifteen moments of mind in the path of seeing the truths through the path-comparison patience. These are not awakened to by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas because the time is extremely brief and swift. In this way, he knows the past causes and conditions of beings and the exhaustion of outflows; he knows the future and present in the same way. Therefore the Buddha is called complete in knowledge and conduct.

Conduct means bodily and verbal karma. Only the Buddha is complete in bodily and verbal karma; all others have faults. This is called complete in knowledge and conduct.

He is also called Sugata. Su means “good,” and gata may mean “gone” or “spoken.” Thus it means “well-gone” and “well-spoken.”

“Well-gone” means that he has gone within many kinds of deep samadhi and immeasurable great wisdom. As a verse says:

“The Buddha’s all-wisdom is the great vehicle; by practicing the eightfold right path, he enters nirvana.”

This is called well-gone.

“Well-spoken” means that he speaks according to the true character of dharmas and does not speak out of attachment or love for dharmas. He observes the strength of his disciples’ wisdom. If a person cannot be transformed even by every kind of skillful means, spiritual power, and wisdom-power, he knows there is nothing more to be done. He knows whether a person who can be liberated should be liberated quickly or slowly, and in what circumstance that person should be liberated. He knows whether to teach generosity, moral discipline, or nirvana; or whether to teach the five aggregates, the twelve links of dependent arising, the four truths, and other dharmas by which one can enter the path. In these and many other ways, he knows the strength of his disciples’ wisdom and teaches Dharma for them. This is called well-spoken.

He is also called Lokavid. Loka means “world,” and vid means “knowing.” Thus it means knower of the world.

Question: What is meant by knowing the world?

Answer: He knows two kinds of world: first, sentient beings; second, what is not sentient. He also knows the world as it truly is, the cause of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path beyond the world.

Furthermore, his knowing of the world is not like worldly knowing, and it is not like the knowing of non-Buddhist teachers. He knows that the world is impermanent, therefore suffering; and because it is suffering, it is without self.

Furthermore, he knows the character of the world: it is not permanent and not impermanent, not finite and not infinite, not gone and not not-gone. He is not attached even to such characteristics. It is pure, constantly unbroken, and like space. This is called knowing the world.

He is also called Anuttara, which means “unsurpassed.”

What is meant by unsurpassed?

The Dharma of nirvana is unsurpassed. The Buddha knows this nirvana by himself, not from hearing it from another, and he also guides beings so that they reach nirvana. Just as nirvana is unsurpassed among all dharmas, the Buddha is unsurpassed among beings.

Furthermore, in moral discipline, meditation, wisdom, and the teaching and transforming of beings, there is no one equal to him. How much less could anyone surpass him? Therefore he is called unsurpassed.

Furthermore, a means “without,” and nuttara means “answer.” All non-Buddhist teachings can be answered and refuted, because they are neither true nor pure. The Buddha Dharma cannot be answered and cannot be refuted, because it goes beyond every path of language and is also true and pure. For this reason, he is called “without answer.”

He is also called Puruṣa-damya-sārathi. Puruṣa means “man” or “person,” damya means “to be tamed,” and sārathi means “charioteer” or “trainer.” Thus it means trainer of persons who can be tamed.

Because the Buddha has great kindness, great compassion, and great wisdom, at times he uses soft and beautiful words, at times sharp and painful words, and at times mixed words. By these he trains beings so they do not lose the path. As a verse says:

“The Buddha Dharma is the chariot, the disciples are the horses; the Buddha, master of the treasure of true Dharma, is the trainer. If a horse leaves the path and loses the right track, it should be treated in this way and brought under control. If it is only slightly untamed, it is treated lightly; one fond of goodness is established in the highest path. If one cannot be treated, then he is set aside. For this reason, this trainer is unsurpassed.”

Furthermore, there are five kinds of trainers. First are parents, elder brothers and sisters, relatives, and clan members; next are government officials and laws; next are teachers’ methods. These three kinds of methods govern this present life. In a future life, King Yama governs. The Buddha brings benefit through the happiness of this life, the happiness of future lives, and the happiness of nirvana; therefore he is called teacher. The first four kinds of methods soon come to an end and decay, and cannot bring about a lasting and true accomplishment. The Buddha accomplishes persons by means of three paths, so they continually follow the path and do not lose it, just as fire does not abandon its own character until it is extinguished. When the Buddha enables people to attain good dharmas, it is also like this: they do not abandon them even until death. For this reason, the Buddha is called trainer of persons who can be tamed.

Question: The Buddha also teaches women and enables them to attain the path. Why speak only of men?

Answer: It is because men were regarded as honored and women as lowly, because women followed men, and because men were treated as the heads of affairs.

Furthermore, women have the five obstructions: they cannot become a wheel-turning king, Śakra, king of the Māra heavens, a Brahmā king, or a Buddha. For this reason, they are not mentioned.

Furthermore, if one said that the Buddha is a trainer of women, it would not sound respectful. If one speaks of men, all are included. It is like a king coming: he should not come alone, but must have attendants. In the same way, when “men” are spoken of, those with both faculties, those without faculties, and women are all included. Therefore “men” is said. For these reasons, the Buddha is called trainer of persons who can be tamed.

He is also called Śāstā deva-manuṣyāṇām. Śāstā means “teacher,” deva means “devas,” and manuṣyāṇām means “humans.” Thus it means teacher of devas and humans.

What is meant by teacher of devas and humans?

The Buddha shows and guides them: this should be done, this should not be done; this is wholesome, this is unwholesome. When a person follows the teaching, practices it, and does not abandon the Dharma of the path, that person receives the fruit of liberation from afflictions. This is called teacher of devas and humans.

Question: The Buddha can liberate dragons, ghosts, spirits, and others born in the other destinies. Why speak only of teacher of devas and humans?

Answer: He liberates fewer of those born in the other destinies, and liberates more of devas and humans. It is like a white person: although there may be a black mole, that person is not called black, because the black part is small.

Furthermore, among humans the fetters and latent tendencies are thin, and the mind of disenchantment is easy to obtain. Among devas, wisdom is sharp. For this reason, these two places are easy places to attain the path. It is not so in the other destinies.

Furthermore, saying “devas” includes all devas, and saying “humans” includes all those born on the earth. Why? In the heavens, devas are predominant; on the earth, humans are predominant. Therefore, when devas are spoken of, all in the heavens are included; when humans are spoken of, all on the earth are included.

Furthermore, among humans one can receive the discipline of moral restraint, the path of seeing the truths, the path of contemplation, and the fruits of the various paths. Some say that these cannot be attained in the other destinies. Some say they can be attained there to some extent. Among devas and humans, they are easier to attain and more often attained. For this reason, the Buddha is teacher of devas and humans.

Furthermore, among humans there are many causes for practicing happiness, and among devas there are many results of happiness. Wholesome dharmas are the cause of happiness, and happiness is the result of wholesome dharmas. In the other destinies, wholesome causes and results are few. For this reason, the Buddha is teacher of devas and humans.

He is also called Buddha, which means “one who knows.” What dharmas does he know? He knows all dharmas of the past, future, and present; dharmas included among sentient beings and not included among sentient beings; permanent and impermanent dharmas, and so forth. Beneath the bodhi tree, he clearly awakened to and knew them. Therefore he is called Buddha.

Question: Other beings also know all dharmas. For example, Maheśvara, whose name means “Great Sovereign,” has eight arms and three eyes and rides a white bull. Viṣṇu has four arms, holds a conch and a discus, and rides Garuḍa. Kumāra, whose name means “Youth,” holds a rooster and a bell, grasps a red banner, and rides a peacock. These are all great generals among the devas. Devas such as these each claim greatness and are all called all-knowing. Some people become their disciples, study their scriptures, receive their teachings, and say that they are all-knowing.

Answer: These should not be called all-knowing. Why? Because their minds are attached to anger and arrogance. As a verse says:

“Whether painted images or clay images, devas heard of in scriptures or devas praised by others, these four kinds of devas each hold weapons in their hands. If their strength is inferior, they fear others; if their minds are unwholesome, they frighten others. These devas must either frighten others, or, because their strength is small, fear others. All these devas are constantly afraid and cannot remove decline and suffering. Those who serve and honor them in this present life still do not avoid sinking into an ocean of sorrow; those who do not honor or make offerings to them are not prevented in this present life from enjoying wealth and happiness. Know that these are empty deceptions without real substance; therefore the wise do not belong to devas. In the world, beings move in circles because of the causes and conditions of karma: through the condition of merit they are born in the heavens; through mixed karma as cause and condition they are born among humans. The actions of the world belong to causes and conditions; therefore the wise do not rely on devas.”

Furthermore, these three devas, when they love someone, wish to make all that person’s wishes come true; when they hate someone, they wish to destroy that person’s family for seven generations. The Buddha is not like this. When he was still a bodhisattva, if enemies or bandits came wanting to kill him, he would still offer them the flesh of his body, his head, eyes, marrow, and brain. How much more so after he attained buddhahood, when he did not cling to his body at all. For this reason, only the Buddha should receive the name Buddha. One should go for refuge to the Buddha, take the Buddha as teacher, and not serve devas.

Furthermore, the Buddha has two qualities: first, the power of great merit and spiritual powers; second, the foremost purity of mind, because all fetters and latent tendencies have been extinguished.

Although devas have merit and spiritual power, their fetters and latent tendencies have not been extinguished, so their minds are not pure. Because their minds are not pure, their spiritual power is also slight.

Although śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have extinguished fetters and latent tendencies and their minds are pure, their merit is thin, so their power and influence are slight.

The Buddha is complete in both dharmas. Therefore he is called superior to all people; others are not superior to all people.

Bhagavān means “endowed with virtue,” as was explained earlier.

He is also called Apama, which means “without equal”; Apamapama, which means “without equal among the unequaled”; Lokanātha, which means “World-Honored One”; Pāraga, which means “gone to the other shore”; Bhadanta, which means “greatly virtuous”; and Śrīgaṇa, which means “rich in virtue.” There are immeasurable names such as these. The name given by his parents was Siddhārtha, which means “accomplished benefit.” When he attained the path, because he knew all dharmas, he was called Buddha and became worthy of offerings from devas and people of the world. In this way he receives names such as greatly virtuous and rich in virtue. In many such ways, names are established according to virtue.

Question: You love Siddhārtha, the son of King Śuddhodana of the kṣatriya clan. For this reason, you greatly praise him and say he is all-knowing. But there is no such person as an all-knowing one.

Answer: It is not so. Because of your wrong and harmful view, you are jealous of and angry toward the Buddha, and so you speak falsely. There truly is an all-knowing person. Why? Among all beings, the Buddha’s bodily appearance and features are upright and incomparable; his marks, virtue, and knowledges are complete; and he surpasses all people. Even ordinary people, when they see the Buddha’s bodily marks, know that he is an all-knowing person. How much more so do great people know this.

As the Cowherd Simile Sutra says:

King Bimbisāra of Magadha invited the Buddha and five hundred disciples for three months. The king needed fresh milk, curds, and ghee to offer to the Buddha and the community of monks, so he told the cowherds to come and live nearby and to deliver fresh milk, curds, and ghee each day. When the three months were over, the king took pity on these cowherds and said, “Go see the Buddha, and then return to herding cattle.” The cowherds went to the Buddha. On the road, they discussed among themselves: “We have heard people say that the Buddha is an all-knowing person. We are lowly, inferior people. How could we discern whether there truly is an all-knowing person?” Because brahmins liked ghee and curds, they often came and went among the cowherds and became friendly with them. Because of this, the cowherds had heard the names of many brahmin scriptures. So they said, “In the four Vedas there are methods of healing, warfare, astrology, sacrifice to the devas, singing and dancing, debate, difficult questioning, and sixty-four worldly arts such as these. The son of King Śuddhodana has studied widely and heard much, so if he knows these things, that is not difficult. But since birth he has never herded cattle. We will ask him the secret methods of cowherding. If he can understand them, then he truly is an all-knowing person.”

After discussing this, they entered the Bamboo Grove and saw the Buddha’s radiance illuminating the forest. They went forward seeking the Buddha and saw him seated beneath a tree. His form was like a golden mountain; like ghee poured into fire, its flame blazing brightly; like molten gold, spreading a purple-golden radiance over the Bamboo Grove. They could not tire of looking at him, and their hearts were filled with great joy. They said to one another:

“Whether or not this lion of the Śākyas is all-knowing, seeing him, no one fails to rejoice; this alone is already enough. His radiance shines foremost; his face and appearance are deeply noble. His bodily marks, majesty, and virtue are complete, matching the name Buddha. Each mark is distinct, and his awe-inspiring power is complete. Merit surrounds him of itself; no one who sees him fails to love him. His body rests within a perfect halo, and those who look upon him are never satisfied. If there is an all-knowing one, he must have these virtues. All painted images and jeweled, adorned statues, if compared with this wondrous body, cannot serve as similes. He fulfills all who behold him and enables them to gain the highest joy. Seeing him gives rise to pure faith. He must be all-knowing.”

Having reflected in this way, they bowed to the Buddha, sat down, and asked him, “How many qualities must a cowherd accomplish to make the herd increase and thrive? How many qualities, if not accomplished, keep the herd from increasing and prevent it from being secure?”

The Buddha answered, “There are eleven qualities by which a cowherd can make the herd increase and thrive. What are the eleven? Knowing color, knowing marks, knowing how to groom, knowing how to cover wounds, knowing how to make smoke, knowing good paths, knowing suitable places for cattle, knowing good crossings, knowing secure places, knowing how to leave milk, and knowing how to care for the herd-leaders. If a cowherd knows these eleven qualities, he can make the herd increase and thrive. A monk is also like this: by knowing eleven qualities, he can increase wholesome dharmas.

“What is knowing color? He knows black, white, and mixed colors. A monk is also like this: he knows that all form is the four great elements and what is made from the four great elements.

“What is knowing marks? He knows the auspicious and inauspicious marks of cattle. When they mix with another herd, he recognizes them by their marks. A monk is also like this: seeing the mark of wholesome karma, he knows this is a wise person; seeing the mark of unwholesome karma, he knows this is a foolish person.

“What is grooming? When insects drink blood, wounds increase; by grooming, he removes the harm. A monk is also like this: insects of bad and wrong thoughts drink the blood of roots of goodness and increase the wounds of the mind. When he removes them, he is secure.

“What is covering wounds? With cloth or grass leaves, he protects them from mosquitoes, gadflies, and harmful thorns. A monk is also like this: by mindfulness and right contemplation, he covers the wounds of the six sense faculties, not allowing the harmful insects and thorns of affliction, craving, and anger to injure them.

“What is knowing how to make smoke? He removes mosquitoes and gadflies, and when cattle see the smoke from afar, they come toward the shelter. A monk is also like this: he speaks according to what he has heard, removes the mosquitoes and gadflies of fetters and latent tendencies, and with the smoke of Dharma teaching leads beings into the empty shelter of the true character of no-self.

“What is knowing the path? He knows the good and bad paths by which cattle go and return. A monk is also like this: he knows that the noble eightfold path can reach nirvana and leave behind the bad paths of annihilationism and eternalism.

“What is knowing suitable places for cattle? He can make the cattle increase, thrive, and have few illnesses. A monk is also like this: when the Buddha Dharma is taught, he gains pure Dharma joy, and his roots of goodness greatly increase.

“What is knowing a crossing? He knows a place that is easy to enter and easy to cross, without waves or harmful insects. A monk is also like this: he can go to learned monks and ask about the Dharma. One who teaches Dharma knows whether the person before him has sharp or dull faculties and whether that person’s afflictions are light or heavy, and so leads that person into a good crossing, where they cross securely.

“What is knowing a secure place? He knows a place to stay where there are no tigers, wolves, lions, harmful insects, or poisonous beasts. A monk is also like this: he knows that the four foundations of mindfulness are secure, without afflictions, harmful Māras, or poisonous beasts. When a monk enters them, he is secure and without trouble.

“What is leaving milk? Because the cow loves and thinks of her calf, she gives milk. Because some milk is left, the mother cow is pleased, the calf is not exhausted, and the cattle owner and cowherd benefit each day. A monk is also like this: when householders in white robes give clothing and food, he should know moderation and not cause them to be exhausted. Then the donors are pleased, their faith does not cease, and the recipient is not lacking.

“What is knowing how to care for the herd-leaders? Because great bulls can guard the herd, they should be cared for and protected, not allowed to become thin and weak. They are given sesame oil to drink, adorned with necklaces, marked with iron-tipped horns, rubbed and brushed, praised, honored, and so forth. A monk is also like this: within the Saṅgha there are great people of awe-inspiring virtue who protect and benefit the Buddha Dharma, subdue non-Buddhist teachers, and enable the eight assemblies to plant roots of goodness. According to what is appropriate, they should be honored, respected, and given offerings.”

After the cowherds heard these words, they reflected, “What we know does not go beyond three or four matters. Even the teachers among cowherds go no further than five or six. Now that we have heard this teaching, we marvel at what we have never heard before. If he knows these things, then he surely knows all the rest as well. He truly is an all-knowing person. There is no further doubt.”

This sutra should be explained at length here. For this reason, one knows that there is an all-knowing person.

Question: There should not be an all-knowing person in the world. Why? Because no one has seen an all-knowing person.

Answer: It is not so. Not seeing something is of two kinds. One cannot say that something does not exist merely because it has not been seen.

First, something may truly exist, but because it is covered by causes and conditions, it is not seen. For example, the beginning of a person’s clan lineage, the weight of Snow Mountain, and the number of grains of sand beside the Ganges exist, yet cannot be known.

Second, something may truly not exist; because it does not exist, it is not seen. For example, a second head or a third hand is not hidden by causes and conditions, yet it is not seen.

In the same way, the all-knowing person is hidden from you by causes and conditions; it is not that there is no all-knowing person. What are the causes and conditions that cover him? You have not yet attained the four kinds of faith, and your mind is attached to harmful wrong views. Because you are covered by these causes and conditions, you do not see the all-knowing person.

Question: Since the objects to be known are immeasurable, there is no all-knowing person. Dharmas are immeasurable and boundless. Even many people together still could not know them, how much less one person. For this reason, there is no all-knowing person.

Answer: Just as dharmas are immeasurable, wisdom too is immeasurable, countless, and boundless. It is like a box: when the box is large, the lid is also large; when the box is small, the lid is also small.

Question: The Buddha himself teaches only the Buddha Dharma and does not teach other scriptures, such as medical formulas, astrology, calculation texts, worldly classics, and other such dharmas. If he is an all-knowing person, why does he not teach them? For this reason, we know he is not an all-knowing person.

Answer: Although he knows all dharmas, he teaches them when they are useful and does not teach them when they are not useful. He teaches when someone asks and does not teach when no one asks.

Furthermore, all dharmas, stated briefly, are of three kinds: first, conditioned dharmas; second, unconditioned dharmas; third, inexpressible dharmas. These already include all dharmas.

Question: Because he does not answer the fourteen difficult questions, we know he is not an all-knowing person. What are the fourteen difficult questions?

Are the world and the self permanent? Are the world and the self impermanent? Are the world and the self both permanent and impermanent? Are the world and the self neither permanent nor impermanent? Are the world and the self finite, infinite, both finite and infinite, or neither finite nor infinite? After death, does a spirit go on to a later world? Does no spirit go on to a later world? Does a spirit both go and not go? After death, does a spirit neither go nor not go to a later world? Are the body and the spirit the same? Are the body and the spirit different?

If the Buddha is an all-knowing person, why does he not answer these fourteen difficult questions?

Answer: Because these matters have no reality, he does not answer them. There is no principle by which dharmas are permanent, and there is also no principle by which dharmas are annihilated. For this reason, the Buddha does not answer. It is like someone asking how many liters of milk can be milked from a cow’s horn. This is not a proper question and should not be answered.

Furthermore, the world has no limit, like a wheel without beginning or end.

Furthermore, answering these questions brings no benefit and has faults, because one falls into harmful wrong views. The Buddha knows that the fourteen difficult questions always cover over the four truths and the true character of dharmas. If there are harmful insects in the water at a crossing, one should not lead people across there. Where it is secure and without danger, one may show people how to cross.

Furthermore, some say that these matters cannot be understood by anyone who is not all-knowing. Because ordinary people cannot know them, the Buddha does not answer.

Furthermore, if someone says that what does not exist exists, or says that what exists does not exist, that person is not all-knowing. An all-knowing person says that what exists exists, and that what does not exist does not exist. The Buddha does not say that what exists does not exist, and he does not say that what does not exist exists. He only teaches the true character of dharmas. How could he not be called an all-knowing person? It is like the sun: it does not create high places or low places, nor does it create level ground, but shines equally upon them all. The Buddha is also like this. He does not make what exists into what does not exist, nor make what does not exist into what exists. He constantly speaks the light of true wisdom, illuminating all dharmas. As when a practitioner asked the Buddha, “Great Virtuous One, are the twelve links of dependent arising made by the Buddha, or are they made by someone else?” The Buddha said, “I do not make the twelve links of dependent arising, and no one else makes them. Whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, with birth as condition there is aging and death; this Dharma constantly and definitely abides.” The Buddha can teach that with birth as condition there is aging and death, and so on up to ignorance as condition for formations.

Furthermore, if one answers the fourteen difficult questions, there are faults and offenses. If someone asks, “What kind of child does a barren woman or a eunuch have: tall or short, handsome or ugly?” this should not be answered, because there is no child.

Furthermore, these fourteen difficult questions are wrong views, not reality. The Buddha constantly relies on reality. For this reason, he sets them aside and does not answer.

Furthermore, setting aside and not answering is itself an answer. There are four kinds of answer: first, a definite answer, as when the Buddha says that nirvana is the foremost security; second, an answer that explains the meaning; third, an answer by counter-question; and fourth, an answer by setting aside. Here the Buddha answers by setting aside.

Your statement that there is no all-knowing person has words but no meaning. It is a great falsehood. There truly is an all-knowing person. Why? Because the Buddha has attained the ten powers: he knows what is possible and impossible; he knows causes, conditions, karma, and results; he knows all meditations and liberations; he knows whether the faculties of beings are wholesome or unwholesome; he knows their many kinds of aspirations and understandings; he knows the immeasurable dispositions of many kinds of worlds; he knows all paths leading to their destinations; he clearly remembers and knows the places and practices of past lives; he has clearly attained the divine eye; and he knows the exhaustion of all outflows. He clearly knows what is pure and impure; he teaches the supreme Dharma in all worlds; he has attained the taste of nectar; he has attained the middle way; he knows the true character of all dharmas, whether conditioned or unconditioned; and he is forever free from desire for the three realms. Because of these many causes and conditions, the Buddha is an all-knowing person.

Question: If there is an all-knowing person, who is that person?

Answer: This person is the foremost great person, honored in the three realms, called the Buddha. As a verse in praise of the Buddha says:

“The wheel-turning king born from the crown is like the sun, moon, and lamps. From the noble clan of the Śākyas, the prince of King Śuddhodana was born. At his birth, the three-thousandfold world shook, together with Mount Sumeru and the ocean waters. To break aging, sickness, and death, he was born in the world out of compassion. At birth he walked seven steps, and his light filled the ten directions. Looking in the four directions, he gave forth a great sound: ‘This is my final birth from the womb.’ Having become Buddha, he taught the wondrous Dharma and sounded the great Dharma drum, using it to awaken beings from the world’s sleep of ignorance. Many rare events such as these appeared, and devas and people of the world who saw them all rejoiced. The Buddha’s marks adorn his body; his face is like a full moon with great radiance. All men and women look upon him without ever tiring. The strength of his birth body, nourished by milk and food, surpasses ten thousand koṭis of fragrant elephants. His spiritual-power strength is unsurpassed; his wisdom-power is immeasurable. The great radiance of the Buddha’s body shines upon the surface of his body; the Buddha is within that radiance like the moon within its light. When people slander and revile the Buddha in many ways, the Buddha has no thought of anger. When people praise the Buddha in many ways, the Buddha has no thought of delight. With great kindness he looks upon all, making no difference between enemy and loved one. All beings with consciousness know this. By the power of patience, kindness, and compassion, he can surpass all. For the sake of liberating beings, he receives hardship life after life. His mind is always steady, working for the benefit of beings. His wisdom-power has ten powers; his fearlessness-power has four; he has eighteen unshared qualities, an immeasurable treasury of merit. With countless rare powers of merit such as these, like a lion without fear, he breaks the teachings of non-Buddhists, turns the unsurpassed Brahmā wheel, and liberates beings from the three realms.”

This is what is meant by Bhagavān.

The meaning of Bhagavān is immeasurable. If it were explained in full, it would set aside the remaining matters. For this reason, it has been explained briefly.