The Bodhisattva Assembly

Explanation of the Bodhisattvas in the First Chapter of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Śāstra, Section Eight, Fascicle Four

Sutra:

There were also bodhisattva mahāsattvas.

Treatise:

Question:

If counted from above, the bodhisattvas should be named first, followed in order by the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās, because bodhisattvas are next to the Buddha. If counted from below, the upāsikās should be named first, followed in order by the upāsakas, bhikṣuṇīs, bhikṣus, and bodhisattvas. Why, then, does the sutra now first mention the bhikṣus, then the three other assemblies, and only afterward the bodhisattvas?

Answer:

Although bodhisattvas should be next to the Buddha, because they have not yet exhausted all afflictions, the arhats are mentioned first. The arhats' wisdom may be lesser, yet it is already mature. The bodhisattvas' wisdom may be greater, yet their afflictions are not yet exhausted. For this reason, the arhats are mentioned first.

In the Buddha Dharma there are two modes: first, the hidden; second, the openly displayed.

In the openly displayed mode, Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas, and arhats are all fields of merit, because their afflictions have been exhausted without remainder.

In the hidden mode, it is said that bodhisattvas attain the patience with the non-arising of dharmas, have already cut off the afflictions, possess the six superknowledges, and benefit beings.

Because the sutra follows the openly displayed Dharma, it first mentions the arhats and afterward mentions the bodhisattvas.

Furthermore, by the power of skillful means, bodhisattvas appear to enter the five destinies, experience the five desires, and guide beings. If they were placed above the arhats, devas and people of the world would give rise to doubt and surprise. For this reason, they are mentioned afterward.

Question:

It may be acceptable for them to come after the arhats, but why are they placed even after the upāsakas and upāsikās?

Answer:

Although the fourfold assembly has not yet exhausted the outflows, that exhaustion is not far off; therefore they are all generally called the śrāvaka assembly.

If bodhisattvas were mentioned in the middle of the fourfold assembly, it would not be appropriate. For example, because bhikṣuṇīs receive immeasurable disciplinary precepts, they should come right after the bhikṣus and before the śrāmaṇeras. Yet because this would not be appropriate according to the forms of discipline, the Buddha places them after the śrāmaṇeras. These bodhisattvas are also like this. Although they should be above the three assemblies of people in training, because it would not be appropriate, they are mentioned afterward.

Furthermore, some say, “The merit and wisdom of bodhisattvas surpass those of arhats and pratyekabuddhas. Therefore they are mentioned separately.”

Question:

In the śrāvaka sutras only the fourfold assembly is mentioned. Why does this sutra separately mention the bodhisattva assembly?

Answer:

There are two kinds of path: first, the śrāvaka path; second, the bodhisattva path.

The fourfold assembly of bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās belongs to the śrāvaka path. Bodhisattva mahāsattvas belong to the bodhisattva path.

For this reason, in the śrāvaka Dharma, the openings of sutras do not say, “The Buddha was dwelling at such and such a place together with so many bodhisattvas.” They only say, “The Buddha was dwelling at such and such a place together with so many bhikṣus.” For example, “The Buddha was in Vārāṇasī together with five bhikṣus”; “The Buddha was in the country of Gayā together with one thousand bhikṣus”; and “The Buddha was in Śrāvastī together with five hundred bhikṣus.” In the openings of these various sutras, it is not said that he was together with any number of bodhisattvas.

Question:

There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: those who have gone forth and those who remain at home. Bodhisattvas who remain at home are generally included among the upāsakas and upāsikās. Bodhisattvas who have gone forth are generally included among the bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. Why are they now mentioned separately?

Answer:

Although they are generally included within the fourfold assembly, they should still be mentioned separately. Why? These bodhisattvas necessarily fall within the fourfold assembly, but there are members of the fourfold assembly who do not fall within the bodhisattvas.

Who are they? There are people of the śrāvaka path, people of the pratyekabuddha path, people who seek rebirth in the heavens, and people who seek only pleasure and self-support. These four kinds of people do not fall within the bodhisattvas. Why? Because they do not give rise to the thought, “I shall become a Buddha.”

Furthermore, because bodhisattvas attain the patience with the non-arising of dharmas, all names and the marks of birth and death are cut off. They go beyond the three realms and do not fall within the number of beings. Why? When people of the śrāvaka path attain arhatship and enter extinction, they no longer fall within the number of beings. How much more so the bodhisattvas?

As a verse in the Questions of Upasīva in the Pārāyana says:

“One who is extinguished, is there nowhere from which he emerges again? If he has been forever extinguished, does he not emerge? Having entered nirvāṇa, does he abide forever? I only pray that the greatly wise one will speak the truth of this.”

The Buddha answered:

“One who is extinguished is beyond measure. Causes and conditions, names and marks, are destroyed. The path of all speech has already been passed beyond; all at once, everything is ended, like a fire gone out.”

If even all names of an arhat are cut off, how much more so for bodhisattvas, who can break through all dharmas, know their true mark, and attain the Dharma body. How could they not be cut off from such naming?

For this reason, in the fourfold assembly of the Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are mentioned separately.

Question:

Why is it that at the beginning of Mahāyāna sutras both the bodhisattva assembly and the śrāvaka assembly are mentioned, while in śrāvaka sutras only the bhikṣu assembly is mentioned and the bodhisattva assembly is not?

Answer:

It is because the meaning of the two vehicles is to be distinguished: the Buddha Vehicle and the śrāvaka vehicle. The śrāvaka vehicle is narrow and small; the Buddha Vehicle is vast and great. The śrāvaka vehicle benefits oneself and acts for oneself; the Buddha Vehicle benefits all.

Furthermore, the śrāvaka vehicle mostly teaches the emptiness of beings, while the Buddha Vehicle teaches both the emptiness of beings and the emptiness of dharmas. In these and other ways, the three vehicles are variously distinguished. Because these two paths are explained separately, Mahāyāna sutras mention both the śrāvaka assembly and the bodhisattva assembly. As a verse praising the Mahāyāna says:

“Those who attain this Great Vehicle can give joy to all. They benefit beings with the true Dharma and lead them to the unsurpassed path.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle, because they have compassion for all, give their heads and eyes in charity, abandoning them like grass or wood.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle protect and uphold pure precepts, like a yak that loves its tail, not sparing body or life.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle can attain unsurpassed patience. If someone cuts apart their body, they regard it as cutting grass.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle are diligent without weariness, exerting themselves without rest, like someone trying to empty the great ocean.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle broadly cultivate immeasurable concentration. Through the power of superknowledge and the noble path, they become pure and attain freedom.

Those who attain this Great Vehicle distinguish the marks of all dharmas. Unbreakable true wisdom is already complete within them.

With inconceivable wisdom and the power of immeasurable compassion, they do not enter into duality and equally contemplate all dharmas.

Donkeys, horses, camels, and elephants are all called vehicles, yet they cannot be matched with one another. Bodhisattvas and śrāvakas, the great and the small, are also like this.

Great compassion is the axle; wisdom is the two wheels; diligence is the swift horse; precepts and concentration are the bit.

Patience is the armor of the mind; dhāraṇī is the reins and bridle. Those who ride the Mahāyāna vehicle can carry all beings across.”

Question:

If at the beginning of śrāvaka sutras only the bhikṣu assembly is mentioned, why do Mahāyāna sutras not mention only the bodhisattva assembly at the beginning?

Answer:

The Mahāyāna is vast and great; all vehicles and all paths enter into the Mahāyāna. The śrāvaka vehicle is narrow and small and does not receive the Mahāyāna. It is like the Ganges, which does not receive the great ocean because it is narrow and small; the great ocean can receive all streams because it is vast and great. The Mahāyāna Dharma is also like this. As a verse says:

“The Mahāyāna is like the ocean; the small vehicle is water in an ox's hoofprint. Because the small cannot receive the great, this comparison is also like that.”

For this reason, the small-vehicle assembly does not receive the bodhisattvas.

Question:

What is called bodhi? What is called sattva?

Answer:

Bodhi means the path of the Buddhas. Sattva means either a being or a great mind. This person wishes to obtain all the qualities and merits of the path of the Buddhas. That mind cannot be cut off and cannot be broken, like a vajra mountain. This is called a great mind. As a verse says:

“All the dharmas of the Buddhas, wisdom, precepts, and concentration, can benefit all beings. This is called bodhi.

That mind cannot be moved. It can endure the work of accomplishing the path. It is not cut off and not broken. This mind is called sattva.”

Furthermore, praising good dharmas is called sa; the essential mark of good dharmas is called tva. Because the bodhisattva's mind benefits oneself and benefits others, because it carries all beings across, because it knows the true nature of all dharmas, because it practices the path of anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, and because it is praised by all noble and worthy ones, it is called bodhi-sattva. Why? Among all dharmas, the Buddha Dharma is foremost. Because this person wishes to take up this Dharma, the noble and worthy ones praise them.

Furthermore, such a person seeks the Buddha path in order to free all beings from birth, aging, and death. This is called bodhi-sattva.

Furthermore, three kinds of path are all bodhi: first, the Buddha path; second, the śrāvaka path; third, the pratyekabuddha path. Although the pratyekabuddha path and śrāvaka path attain bodhi, they are not called bodhi. In the qualities and merits of the Buddha, bodhi is called bodhi. This is called bodhi-sattva.

Question:

From what point onward is someone called a bodhi-sattva?

Answer:

When one has a great vow, an unmoving mind, and diligence that does not retreat, because of these three things one is called a bodhi-sattva.

Furthermore, some say: when one first gives rise to the thought and makes the vow, “I shall become a Buddha and carry all beings across,” from that point onward one is called a bodhi-sattva. As a verse says:

“When one first gives rise to the thought and vows to become a Buddha, one has already gone beyond the worlds and should receive offerings from the world.”

From the first arising of the thought up to the ninth unhindered stage, before entering the vajra samādhi, the period in between is called bodhi-sattva. There are two kinds of bodhi-sattva: vaivartika, those who turn back, and avaivartika, those who do not turn back, just as there are arhats subject to retreat and arhats not subject to retreat. The avaivartika bodhi-sattva is called a true bodhisattva. Because there are these true bodhisattvas, the other bodhisattvas who may still turn back are all also called bodhisattvas. It is like those who have attained the four paths: they are called the true Sangha. Because there is the true Sangha, those who have not yet attained the path may all also be called Sangha.

Question:

How does one know that a bodhisattva is vaivartika, one who turns back, or avaivartika, one who does not turn back?

Answer:

If one looks in the Chapter on Avaivartika, the Buddha himself explains the marks of avaivartika: such marks are turning back; such marks are not turning back.

Furthermore, if a bodhisattva has one dharma that is well cultivated and well kept in mind, this is called an avaivartika bodhisattva. What is that one dharma? Constantly gathering wholesome dharmas with one mind. As it is said, because the Buddhas gather wholesome dharmas with one mind, they attain anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi.

Furthermore, if a bodhisattva attains one dharma, this is a mark of avaivartika. What is that one dharma? Upright and sincere diligence. As the Buddha asked Ānanda, “Ānanda, can diligence attain the path?” “Yes, Blessed One. Ānanda, diligence can attain the path.” “Ānanda, it is truly so. Ānanda, by constantly keeping diligence in mind, constantly cultivating it, and constantly practicing it, one can even attain anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi.” This is explained broadly in the sutra.

Furthermore, if one attains two dharmas, at that time this is a mark of avaivartika. What are the two dharmas? One truly knows that all dharmas are empty, and one also keeps all beings in mind and does not abandon them. From this and above, such a person is an avaivartika bodhisattva.

Furthermore, one attains three dharmas: first, one makes a single-minded vow, wishing to accomplish the Buddha path, like vajra, unmoving and unbreakable; second, toward all beings, one's loving-kindness penetrates through to the bones and marrow; third, one attains the pratyutpanna samādhi and is able to see the present Buddhas. At that time one is called avaivartika.

Furthermore, in the Abhidharma, the disciples of Kātyāyanīputra say: What is called a bodhisattva? One who awakens oneself and is also able to awaken others is called a bodhisattva. One who will certainly become a Buddha is called a bodhisattva. Bodhi means the wisdom of a person whose outflows are exhausted. Because this person is born from wisdom, protected by people of wisdom, and nourished by people of wisdom, this person is called a bodhisattva.

They also say: after one gives rise to the avaivartika mind, from that point onward one is called a bodhisattva.

They also say: if one leaves five dharmas and attains five dharmas, one is called a bodhisattva. What are the five? Leaving the three bad destinies, one is always born in the heavens or among humans. Leaving poverty and low status, one always obtains honor and nobility. Leaving the state of not being male, one always obtains a male body. Leaving all deformity, deficiency, and ugliness of form, one's faculties are complete. Leaving forgetfulness that abandons joy, one always remembers former lives and attains the wisdom of recollecting former lives; one always leaves all evil dharmas, keeps far away from evil people, always seeks the Dharma of the path, and gathers disciples. In this way one is called a bodhisattva.

They also say: from the time one plants the karma for the thirty-two marks onward, one is called a bodhisattva.

Question:

At what time does one plant the karmic causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks?

Answer:

After passing through three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, one then plants the karmic causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks.

Question:

How much time is called an asaṃkhyeya?

Answer:

Among devas and humans, those who know the methods of calculation can count, but when the number reaches the extreme, they can no longer know it. This is called one asaṃkhyeya. Thus, one times one is called two; two times two is called four; three times three is called nine; ten times ten is called one hundred; ten hundreds are called one thousand; ten thousands are called ten thousand; ten million are called one koṭi; ten million koṭis are called one nayuta; ten million nayutas are called one bimba; ten million bimbas are called one katha; beyond katha is called asaṃkhyeya. In this way one counts three asaṃkhyeyas: when one has completed practicing for one asaṃkhyeya, one practices the second asaṃkhyeya; when the second asaṃkhyeya is complete, one practices the third asaṃkhyeya. It is like the method of calculation: one counts from one up to one hundred, and when the count of one hundred is finished, one returns to one. In this way, after a bodhisattva passes through one asaṃkhyeya, the count returns again to one.

In the first asaṃkhyeya, the mind does not yet know for itself, “Will I become a Buddha or not?” In the second asaṃkhyeya, although the mind can know, “I will certainly become a Buddha,” the mouth does not yet declare, “I will become a Buddha.” In the third asaṃkhyeya, the mind clearly knows for itself that it will become a Buddha, and the mouth speaks forth without fear or difficulty: “In a future life, I will become a Buddha.”

For Śākyamuni Buddha, the period from the past Śākyamuni Buddha up to Ratnaśikhin Buddha was the first asaṃkhyeya; during this period, the bodhisattva forever left behind a woman's body. From Ratnaśikhin Buddha to Dīpaṃkara Buddha was the second asaṃkhyeya; during this period, the bodhisattva offered seven blue lotus flowers to Dīpaṃkara Buddha, spread out a deerskin robe, and laid down his hair to cover the mud. At that time, Dīpaṃkara Buddha gave him the prediction: “In a future life, you will become a Buddha named Śākyamuni.” From Dīpaṃkara Buddha to Vipaśyin Buddha was the third asaṃkhyeya. After passing through three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, at that time the bodhisattva plants the karmic causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks.

Question:

Where can the karma for the thirty-two marks be planted?

Answer:

It is planted in the desire realm, not in the form realm or formless realm. Among the five destinies of the desire realm, it is planted among humans. Among the four continents, it is planted in Jambudvīpa, not in Godānīya, Uttarakuru, or Pūrvavideha. It is planted only in Jambudvīpa, in a male body, not in a woman. It is planted when a Buddha appears in the world; if no Buddha appears in the world, it cannot be planted. It is planted in dependence on the Buddha's body; in dependence on anything else, it cannot be planted.

Question:

As for the karma for the thirty-two marks, among bodily karma, verbal karma, and mental karma, by which karma is it planted?

Answer:

It is planted by mental karma, not by bodily or verbal karma. Why? Because mental karma is sharp.

Question:

Mental karma includes the six consciousnesses. Is the karma for the thirty-two marks planted by mental consciousness, or is it planted by the five consciousnesses?

Answer:

It is mental consciousness, not the five consciousnesses. Why? The five consciousnesses cannot discriminate. For this reason, it is planted by mental consciousness.

Question:

Which mark is planted first?

Answer:

Some say: the mark of firmly planted feet is planted first. Why? One is first firmly planted, and only afterward can the other marks be planted. Some say: the mark of deep blue eyes is planted first; after attaining this eye-mark, one contemplates beings with great loving-kindness. Although these sayings exist, this is not necessarily so. When the causes and conditions for a mark come together, that is the first planting.

Question:

Are they planted by one thought, or are they planted by many thoughts?

Answer:

Thirty-two thoughts plant the thirty-two marks. Each thought plants one mark, and each mark is adorned by one hundred merits.

Question:

How much is called one merit?

Answer:

Some say: the karmic reward of becoming a wheel-turning sage king, receiving blessed happiness and attaining sovereignty over the four continents, is called one merit. In this way, one hundred merits complete one mark.

Others say: becoming Śakra Devānām Indra and attaining sovereignty among the two heavens is called one merit.

Others say: becoming the heavenly king of Paranirmitavaśavartin and attaining sovereignty in the desire realm is called one merit.

Others say: apart from a bodhisattva in the position of one more birth, all the blessed rewards attained by all other beings are called one merit.

Others say: when heaven and earth are exhausted at the end of a kalpa, because of the shared merit of all beings, the retribution-world of the three-thousand-great-thousand world system is established. This is called one merit.

Others say: this merit is immeasurable, but it can be known by analogy. Suppose all beings in a three-thousand-great-thousand world system were blind and without eyes, and one person could heal them and make them recover. This would be one merit. If all people were poisoned, and one person could heal them and make them recover; if all people were about to die, and one person could save them and make them escape; if all people had broken precepts and broken right view, and one person could teach them and enable them to attain pure precepts and right view, such things would be one merit.

Others say: this merit is immeasurable and cannot be expressed by analogy. When this bodhisattva enters the third asaṃkhyeya, with the mind thinking on great practice, one plants the causes and conditions for these thirty-two marks. For this reason, this merit cannot be measured. Only the Buddha can know it.

Question:

How long does it take for a bodhisattva to plant the thirty-two marks?

Answer:

At the slowest, it takes one hundred kalpas; at the fastest, ninety-one kalpas. Śākyamuni Bodhisattva practiced and completed the thirty-two marks over ninety-one great kalpas. As the sutra says: in the distant past, there was a Buddha named Puṣya. At that time there were two bodhisattvas: one named Śākyamuni and one named Maitreya. Puṣya Buddha wished to observe whether Śākyamuni Bodhisattva's mind had become pure and mature. On observing, he saw that Śākyamuni's own mind was not yet pure and mature, but that all his disciples' minds were pure and mature. He also saw that Maitreya Bodhisattva's own mind was already pure and mature, but that his disciples were not yet pure and mature.

At that time Puṣya Buddha thought in this way: “The mind of one person can easily be transformed quickly; the minds of many people are difficult to cure quickly.” Having thought in this way, Puṣya Buddha wished to cause Śākyamuni Bodhisattva to attain Buddhahood quickly. He went up onto Snow Mountain and, in a jeweled cave, entered the fire concentration. At that time, Śākyamuni Bodhisattva was an ascetic of an outside path who had gone up the mountain to gather herbs. He saw Puṣya Buddha sitting in the jeweled cave, entering the fire concentration and emitting light. Having seen this, his mind became joyful, faithful, and reverent. He stood on one leg, joined his palms toward the Buddha, and contemplated him with one mind. His eyes never blinked. For seven days and seven nights, he praised the Buddha with one verse:

In heaven and under heaven, none is like the Buddha;
In the worlds of the ten directions, none compares with him.
All that exists in the world, I have fully seen;
Among them all, there is none like the Buddha.

For seven days and seven nights, he carefully contemplated the World-Honored One, and his eyes never blinked. He surpassed nine kalpas and attained anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi in ninety-one kalpas.

Question:

If Śākyamuni Bodhisattva was intelligent and learned, able to compose many kinds of fine verses, why did he praise the Buddha with only one verse for seven days and seven nights?

Answer:

Śākyamuni Bodhisattva valued the thought of his mind; he did not value many words. If he had praised the Buddha with other verses, his mind might have become scattered. For this reason, for seven days and seven nights he praised the Buddha with one verse.

Question:

Why was Śākyamuni Bodhisattva's own mind not yet pure and mature while his disciples were pure and mature, and why was Maitreya Bodhisattva's own mind pure and mature while his disciples were not yet pure and mature?

Answer:

It was because Śākyamuni Bodhisattva had much thought for benefiting beings and little for himself, while Maitreya Bodhisattva had much thought for himself and little for beings.

From Vipaśyin Buddha to Kāśyapa Buddha, during the interval of ninety-one great kalpas, he finished planting the karmic causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks, and the six pāramitās were fulfilled. What are the six? The perfection of giving, the perfection of morality, the perfection of patience, the perfection of energy, the perfection of meditation, and the perfection of wisdom.

Question:

How is the perfection of giving fulfilled?

Answer:

One is able to give everything, without any obstruction. Even when giving one's own body, the mind has no reluctance. It is like King Śibi giving his body for the sake of a dove. In a former life, Śākyamuni Buddha was a king named Śibi. This king had attained the dhāraṇī of taking refuge and giving protection. He had great energy and a mind of loving-kindness and compassion. He regarded all beings as a mother loves her child. At that time there was no Buddha in the world. Śakra Devānām Indra's life was about to end, and he thought to himself, “Where is there a Buddha, an omniscient person?” He went everywhere posing questions, but no one could cut off his doubts. Knowing that none of them was a Buddha, he returned to heaven and sat in sorrow. There was then the skillful transformation-master, the deva Viśvakarman, who asked:

Why was the lord of devas sorrowful?

He answered, “I seek an omniscient person but cannot find one; for this reason I am sorrowful.” Viśvakarman said, “There is a great bodhisattva who is complete in giving, morality, meditation, and wisdom. Before long he will become a Buddha.” Indra answered with a verse:

When bodhisattvas give rise to the great mind,
they are like fish eggs, mango blossoms, and flowering udumbara trees:
these three are many at the time of cause,
but very few at the time of fruit.

Viśvakarman answered, “This King Śibi of the Uśīnara clan has morality, energy, great loving-kindness, great compassion, meditation, and wisdom. Before long he will become a Buddha.” Śakra Devānām Indra said to Viśvakarman, “We should go test him and see whether he has the marks of a bodhisattva. You become a dove, and I will become a hawk. You pretend to be frightened and enter beneath the king's arm, and I will chase you.” Viśvakarman said, “How can we trouble this great bodhisattva with such a matter?” Śakra Devānām Indra spoke a verse:

I too do not have an evil mind;
as true gold should be tested,
so by this we test the bodhisattva
to know whether his mind is firm.

When he had spoken this verse, Viśvakarman immediately transformed his own body into a dove with red eyes and red feet, and Śakra Devānām Indra transformed himself into a hawk. The hawk flew swiftly in pursuit of the dove. The dove came straight in beneath the king's arm, its whole body trembling in fear, its eyes moving and its voice urgent.

At that time many people spoke with one another, saying, “This king has great loving-kindness and humanity. He ought to protect all.”

This dove, a small bird,
returns to him as though entering a home.
Such is the mark of a bodhisattva;
his Buddhahood will surely not be long delayed.

At that time the hawk was in a nearby tree and said to King Śibi, “Give the dove back to me. This is what I have received.” The king then said to the hawk, “I received this one first; it is not what you received. When I first gave rise to the resolve, I accepted all beings and wished to liberate them all.” The hawk said, “The king wishes to liberate all beings. Am I not among all beings? Why do you alone show me no compassion and take away my food for today?” The king answered, “What food do you need? I have made a vow: any being who comes to me for refuge, I will surely rescue and protect. Whatever food you need, I will also provide for you.” The hawk said, “I need freshly killed warm flesh.” The king thought, “This is hard to obtain. Unless one kills a living being, how could it be obtained? How could I kill one being to give to another?” Having reflected and settled his mind, he spoke this verse:

The flesh of this body of mine
always belongs to aging, sickness, and death.
Before long it will stink and decay;
if he needs it, I should give it.

Having reflected in this way, he called for someone to bring a knife and cut flesh from his own thigh to give to the hawk. The hawk said to the king, “Although the king gives me warm flesh, this should be done according to reason. Let the weight of the flesh be equal to that of the dove. Do not deceive me.” The king said, “Bring a scale.” They weighed the flesh against the dove, but the dove's body grew heavier and the king's flesh grew lighter. The king had them cut flesh from both thighs, but it was still too light and insufficient. Next they cut flesh from both calves, both hips, both breasts, his neck, and his back. When the flesh of his whole body was exhausted, the dove's body was still heavy and the king's flesh was still light. At that time his close ministers and relatives set up curtains and sent away the people who were watching, saying, “The king is now like this; there is nothing to see.” King Śibi said, “Do not block the people. Let them come in and see.” Then he spoke these verses:

Devas, humans, and asuras,
all come and look at me.
With a great mind and unsurpassed aspiration,
I seek to accomplish the Buddha path.

If anyone seeks the Buddha path,
one should endure this great suffering.
If one's mind cannot be firm,
then one should put that intention to rest.

At that time the bodhisattva smeared his hands with blood and grasped the scale, wishing to climb onto it. With firm mind, he intended to place his whole body against the dove. The hawk said, “Great king, this matter is difficult to accomplish. Why go this far? Give the dove back to me.” The king said, “The dove has come to me for refuge. I will never give it to you. I have lost my body countless times with no benefit to anyone. Now I wish to use this body to seek and exchange for the Buddha path.” With his hands he grasped the scale. At that time, the bodhisattva's flesh was gone and his sinews were cut. Unable to control himself, he tried to climb up but fell down. He reproached his own mind, saying, “You should make yourself firm. Do not become confused or faint. All beings have fallen into the great ocean of sorrow and suffering. You alone have made a vow to carry them all across. Why are you weary and faint? This suffering is very little; the suffering of the hells is much greater. Compared with that, this does not reach even one sixteenth part. I now have wisdom, energy, morality, and meditation, yet I still suffer from this pain. How much more so people in the hells who have no wisdom?” At that time the bodhisattva single-mindedly wished to climb up. Again he grasped the scale and said to the people, “Support me.” At that time the bodhisattva's mind was firm and without regret. The devas, nāga kings, asuras, ghosts, spirits, and people all greatly praised him, saying, “For the sake of a small bird he goes this far. This is rare indeed.” Immediately heaven and earth shook in six ways, the great ocean's waves rose, withered trees produced flowers, the heavens rained fragrance and scattered famous flowers, and heavenly women sang praises, saying that he would certainly become a Buddha. At that time sages from the four directions all came and praised him, saying, “This is a true bodhisattva. He will surely become a Buddha soon.” The hawk said to the dove, “After being tested in so many ways, he still does not cherish body or life. This is a true bodhisattva.” He then spoke this verse:

Born in the ground of loving-kindness and compassion,
he is the sprout of the tree of omniscience.
We should make offerings to him;
we should not cause him sorrow or distress.

Viśvakarman said to Śakra Devānām Indra, “Lord of devas, you have spiritual power. You can cause this king's body to be restored.” Śakra Devānām Indra said, “There is no need for me. This king has himself made a true vow. With a great mind, he is joyful and does not cherish body or life. He has moved and inspired everyone to seek the Buddha path.” Indra said to the human king, “You have suffered hardship in cutting your flesh. Has your mind become afflicted and sunk?” The king said, “My mind is joyful. It is neither afflicted nor sunk.” Indra said, “Who will believe that your mind has not sunk?” At that time the bodhisattva made a vow of truth: “If, when I cut my flesh and my blood flowed, I did not become angry or afflicted, and if with one mind, without faintness, I sought the Buddha path, then let my body immediately be restored as before.” As soon as he spoke these words, his body was restored as before. When humans and devas saw this, they were all moved with great compassion and joy, and they praised what had never been before: “This great bodhisattva will certainly become a Buddha. We should all make offerings to him with our whole mind. May he quickly accomplish the Buddha path and remember us.” At that time Śakra Devānām Indra and Viśvakarman each returned to heaven. Various marks such as these show that the perfection of giving was fulfilled.

Question:

How is the perfection of morality fulfilled?

Answer:

One does not cherish body or life, but protects and upholds pure morality. It is like King Sutasoma, who, because of the great King Kalmāṣapāda, even gave up his life and did not violate the prohibitive precepts. In the past there was King Sutasoma. This king was energetic, upheld morality, and always relied on truthful speech. Early one morning he rode in a carriage, taking the women of his palace into a garden to enjoy themselves. As he went out through the city gate, a brahmin came to beg from him and said, “The king is a person of great merit and virtue. I am poor. Please look on me with compassion and give me something, whether little or much.” The king said to him, “Yes. I respectfully accept what you have said. I will give to you. Wait until I return from going out.”

After saying this, he entered the garden to bathe and enjoy himself. At that time there was a winged king named Deer-Foot. He came flying through the air, seized the king from among the palace women, and carried him away, like a garuḍa taking a nāga from the sea. The women wept and cried out, filling the whole garden with lamentation. The people inside and outside the city were startled, disturbed, sorrowful, and afraid. Deer-Foot carried the king, leaping through the empty sky, until he reached the mountain where he lived and placed him among ninety-nine other kings. King Sutasoma's tears fell like rain. Deer-Foot said to him, “Great kṣatriya king, why are you crying like a child? Human life has death; those who come together must part.”

King Sutasoma answered, “I do not fear death. I only regret losing my truthfulness. Since I was born, I have never lied. This morning, when I went out through the gate, a brahmin came to beg from me. At that time I promised him, saying that when I returned I would give to him. I did not consider impermanence, and now I have betrayed his heart and brought on myself the fault of deception. That is why I am crying.” King Deer-Foot said, “If this is what you intend, and you fear this false speech, I permit you to return for seven days. When you have finished giving to the brahmin, then come back. If more than seven days pass and you do not return, I have the power of wings; it will not be hard for me to seize you.”

King Sutasoma was allowed to return to his own country. He gave freely as he wished, installed the crown prince as king, assembled the people, and confessed and apologized to them, saying, “My wisdom did not fully reach all matters, and much of my rule was not in accord with Dharma. Please regard me with loyalty and forgiveness. As of today, this body of mine is no longer my own, and I must go back.” The people of the whole country and all his relatives bowed their heads and begged him to stay, saying, “May the king keep his mind here and compassionately shelter this country. Do not worry about that ghost king Deer-Foot. We should build iron houses and prepare unusual troops. Although Deer-Foot has spiritual power, we need not fear him.” The king said, “That cannot be done.” Then he spoke these verses:

Truthful speech is the foremost precept;
truthful speech is the ladder ascending to heaven.
Truthful speech is for great people;
false speech enters the hells.

I now uphold truthful speech;
I would rather give up body and life.
In my mind there is no regret.

Having reflected in this way, the king immediately set out and went to King Deer-Foot's place. Seeing him from afar, Deer-Foot joyfully said, “You are a person of truthful speech. You have not lost your pledge of faith. Everyone cherishes body and life, yet after escaping from death, you returned to fulfill your promise. You are a great person.” At that time King Sutasoma praised truthful speech, saying, “Truthful speech is what makes one human; without truthful speech, one is not human.” In various ways like this, he praised truthful speech and reproached false speech. When Deer-Foot heard this, his faithful mind became pure. He said to King Sutasoma, “You have spoken this well. Now I release you; you are freed. I also give the ninety-nine kings to you. Let each return to his own country as he wishes.” After he had spoken these words, the hundred kings each returned. Various marks such as these show that the perfection of morality was fulfilled.

Question:

How is the perfection of patience fulfilled?

Answer:

If someone comes to revile, beat, cut, flay, dismember, or take one's life, and the mind does not give rise to anger, this is fulfillment. It is like Kṣānti the monk: when King Kali cut off his hands, feet, ears, and nose, his mind remained firm and unmoved.

Question:

How is the perfection of energy fulfilled?

Answer:

If one has a great mind and diligent strength, this is fulfillment. It is like Great Giving Bodhisattva: for the sake of all beings, with this one body, he vowed to ladle out the great ocean and make it dry, his firm mind never becoming lax. It is also like praising Puṣya Buddha for seven days and seven nights while standing on one foot, without blinking the eyes.

Question:

How is the perfection of meditation fulfilled?

Answer:

It is like attaining mastery within all the meditative concentrations of outside paths. It is also like the ascetic Śaṅkhācārya: when he sat in meditation, there was no inhalation or exhalation. Birds gave birth to young in his coiled hair, yet he did not move or shake, all the way until the young birds flew away.

Question:

How is the perfection of wisdom fulfilled?

Answer:

The bodhisattva reflects and analyzes with a great mind. It is like the brahmin minister Govinda, who divided the great land of Jambudvīpa into seven parts. However many great cities, small cities, settlements, and village people there were, he divided them all into seven parts. The perfection of wisdom is like this.

When this bodhisattva's six pāramitās were fulfilled, he became a disciple under Kāśyapa Buddha, upheld pure morality, practiced merit, and was born in Tuṣita Heaven.

Question:

Why was the bodhisattva born in Tuṣita Heaven, and not born in a higher or lower heaven? Since he has great merit and virtue, he should be free to be born wherever he wishes.

Answer:

Some say that because the causes and conditions of his karma had matured, he should be born there.

Furthermore, in the lower realms the fetters and latent afflictions are coarse and turbid; in the higher realms they are sharp. In Tuṣita Heaven, the fetters and latent afflictions are neither coarse nor sharp, and wisdom is peaceful and secure.

Furthermore, it is because he does not wish to miss the time when a Buddha appears in the world. If he were born in a lower realm, his lifespan would be short, and when his life ended the Buddha might not yet have appeared. If he were born in a higher realm, his lifespan would be long, and before his life was exhausted he might again pass beyond the time of the Buddha's appearance. The lifespan in Tuṣita Heaven corresponds with the time when the Buddha appears.

Furthermore, it is because the Buddha always abides in the middle way. Among the six heavens and Brahmā's heaven, Tuṣita Heaven has three above and three below. From that heaven he descended and was born in the central country. At midnight he descended into the womb; at midnight he left Kapilavastu; by practicing the middle way he attained unsurpassed, complete awakening; by the middle way he taught Dharma for people; and at midnight he entered nirvāṇa without remainder. Because he delights in the Dharma of the middle, he was born in the middle heaven.

In this way, after the bodhisattva was born in Tuṣita Heaven, he observed the human world in four ways: first, he observed the time; second, he observed the land; third, he observed the family lineage; and fourth, he observed the place of birth.

How did he observe the time? There are eight kinds of times in which a Buddha appears: first, when the human lifespan is eighty-four thousand years; second, when the human lifespan is seventy thousand years; third, sixty thousand years; fourth, fifty thousand years; fifth, forty thousand years; sixth, thirty thousand years; seventh, twenty thousand years; and eighth, a little over one hundred years. The bodhisattva reflected in this way: “When the human lifespan is one hundred years, the time for a Buddha to appear has arrived.” This is called observing the time.

How did he observe the land? Buddhas are always born in the central country, where there is much gold, silver, and precious treasure, where food and drink are abundant and excellent, and where the land is pure.

How did he observe the family lineage? A Buddha is born into one of two lineages: either the kṣatriya lineage or the brahmin lineage. The kṣatriya lineage has great power, and the brahmin lineage has great wisdom. Whichever lineage is honored at that time, the Buddha is born into that lineage.

How did he observe the place of birth? He considered what kind of mother could carry a bodhisattva with the strength of Nārāyaṇa and could also herself protect pure morality. Having observed in this way, he saw that only the queen of King Śuddhodana in Kapilavastu, in the central country, could carry the bodhisattva. After reflecting in this way, he descended from Tuṣita Heaven and entered his mother's womb without losing right wisdom.

Question:

Why do all bodhisattvas in their final body come from heaven, and not from among humans?

Answer:

Because they ride the highest path. Among the six paths, the path of the devas is the highest.

Furthermore, when they descend from heaven, there are many kinds of auspicious signs never seen before. If they came from the human path, the human path could not have such signs.

Furthermore, it is because people honor and respect the devas.

Question:

All people enter the mother's womb through a defiled mind and continued existence, and all are associated with wrong wisdom. How, then, is it said that the bodhisattva enters the mother's womb with right wisdom?

Answer:

Some say that at the time of continued existence, all beings enter the mother's womb with a mind of wrong wisdom. Because the bodhisattva does not lose mindfulness, this is called entering the mother's womb with right wisdom. When he abides in the intermediate state, he knows that he abides in the intermediate state. When he enters the womb, he knows that he enters the womb. At the kalala stage, he knows that he abides in kalala, which is the time seven days after conception when the red and white essences have united. At the arbuda stage, he knows that he abides in arbuda, which is the second seven-day period, when the form is like a cocoon or sac. At the ghana stage, he knows that he abides in ghana, which is the third seven-day period, when the form is like curd. At the stage of the five swellings, he knows that he abides in the five swellings. At birth, he knows that he is born. Throughout these stages his mindfulness is not lost. This is called entering the mother's womb with right wisdom.

Furthermore, when other people abide in the intermediate state, if they are male they give rise to a mind of sensual attachment toward the mother, thinking, “This woman will be with me,” and they give rise to anger toward the father. If they are female, they give rise to sensual attachment toward the father, thinking, “This man will be with me,” and they give rise to anger toward the mother. The bodhisattva has no such mind of anger or mind of sensual attachment.

The bodhisattva has already clearly known, “This is my father; this is my mother. These parents are able to nourish and raise my body. Relying on my parents, I will receive this body and attain unsurpassed, complete awakening.” With this pure mind, he recollects his parents and enters the womb through continued existence. This is called entering the mother's womb with right wisdom. When this bodhisattva has completed ten months, his right wisdom and mindfulness are not lost. He comes out of the womb, walks seven steps, and speaks, saying, “This is my final body.”

Later, when the prince was about to be shown to the physiognomists, the king said, “Look at my son and see whether he truly has the thirty-two marks of a great person. If he is fully endowed with the thirty-two marks, then two possibilities should follow: if he remains at home, he will become a wheel-turning sage king; if he leaves home, he will become a Buddha.” The physiognomists said, “Prince Devaputra truly has the thirty-two marks of a great person. If he remains at home, he will become a wheel-turning king; if he leaves home, he will become a Buddha.”

The king said, “What are the thirty-two?” The physiognomists answered:

First, the mark of standing firmly and evenly on the soles of the feet: the entire sole touches the ground, with no space between, not even enough to admit a needle.

Second, the mark of two wheels on the soles of the feet: the thousand spokes, rim, and hub are all complete in three respects. They are naturally accomplished and do not depend on human workmanship. Even Vaiśvakarman, artisan of the devas, could not create such a marvelous mark.

Question:

Why could he not?

Answer:

Vaiśvakarman, artisan of the devas, has wisdom that is not obscured, but this wheel mark is the reward of wholesome karma. The artisan of the devas has wisdom obtained as the result of birth, while this wheel mark is obtained through wisdom that practices roots of goodness. Vaiśvakarman obtained his wisdom in one lifetime, while this wheel mark arises from wisdom cultivated through immeasurable kalpas. For this reason Vaiśvakarman cannot create it, much less any other artisan.

Third, the mark of long fingers and toes: the fingers and toes are slender, long, straight, and upright; in sequence they are full and beautiful, with the joints proportioned in order.

Fourth, the mark of broad and even heels.

Fifth, the mark of webbing between the fingers and toes: like a king of geese, when the fingers or toes are spread, the webbing appears; when they are not spread, it does not appear.

Sixth, the mark of soft hands and feet: they are like fine kalpa cotton down and surpass the other parts of the body.

Seventh, the mark of high and full insteps: when the feet step on the ground, they are neither too broad nor too narrow. The color beneath the feet is like a red lotus. The webbing between the toes and the edges of the feet are the color of true coral. The toenails are like pure red copper. The tops of the feet are the color of true gold, and the hair on the tops of the feet is the blue of vaiḍūrya. The feet are adorned and beautiful, like sandals made of many kinds of jewels and decorated in various ways.

Eighth, the mark of calves like those of the Eṇeya antelope: they are like the calves of the Eṇeya antelope king, full and slender in proper sequence.

Ninth, the mark of the hands reaching the knees when standing straight: without bending forward or leaning back, the palms can touch the knees.

Tenth, the hidden-organ mark: it is like that of a well-trained precious elephant or precious horse.

Question:

When the bodhisattva attained unsurpassed, complete awakening, for what reason did the disciples see the hidden-organ mark?

Answer:

In order to liberate the people and settle their doubts, he showed the hidden-organ mark. Some also say that the Buddha manifested a precious horse and a precious elephant and showed them to the disciples, saying, “My hidden-organ mark is also like this.”

Eleventh, the mark of the body's breadth and height being equal: like a nyagrodha tree, the bodhisattva's body has the navel as its center, and the measurements in the four directions are equal.

Twelfth, the mark of body hair turning upward: all the hairs on the body grow upward and lie smoothly in that direction.

Thirteenth, the mark of one hair growing from each pore: the hairs are not disordered, are the color of blue vaiḍūrya, and spiral to the right as they turn upward.

Fourteenth, the mark of golden color.

Question:

What kind of golden color is this?

Answer:

If iron is placed beside gold, it does not show forth. The gold that exists now does not show forth when compared with the gold that existed in the Buddha's time. The gold of the Buddha's time does not show forth when compared with Jambu River gold. Jambu River gold does not show forth when compared with the gold sand in the road of a wheel-turning sage king within the great ocean. Gold sand does not show forth when compared with a golden mountain. A golden mountain does not show forth when compared with the gold of Mount Sumeru. The gold of Mount Sumeru does not show forth when compared with the gold of the ornaments of the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. The gold of the ornaments of the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three does not show forth when compared with the gold of Yama Heaven. The gold of Yama Heaven does not show forth when compared with the gold of Tuṣita Heaven. The gold of Tuṣita Heaven does not show forth when compared with the gold of the Heaven of Enjoying Transformations. The gold of the Heaven of Enjoying Transformations does not show forth when compared with the gold of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying Others' Transformations. The gold of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying Others' Transformations does not show forth when compared with the color of the bodhisattva's body. A color like this is called the mark of golden color.

Fifteenth, the mark of a fathom of light: on all four sides there is a radiance extending one fathom. Within this light, the Buddha is foremost in dignity and beauty, like the pure radiance of the jewels of the devas and heavenly kings.

Sixteenth, the mark of fine and delicate skin: dust and soil do not cling to his body, just as lotus leaves do not retain dust or water. If the bodhisattva walks in meditation on a dry earthen mountain, soil does not cling to his feet. If the vairambha wind comes and breaks apart the earthen mountain, scattering it into dust, not even a single speck of dust clings to the Buddha's body.

Seventeenth, the mark of seven places being even and full: the two hands, the two feet, the two shoulders, and the nape of the neck are all even, full, upright, and proper. Their color is pure and surpasses the rest of the body.

Eighteenth, the mark of the two armpits being even and full: they are neither raised nor sunken.

Nineteenth, the mark of the upper body being like a lion.

Twentieth, the mark of a large and upright body: among all people, his body is the largest and the most upright.

Twenty-first, the mark of round and beautiful shoulders: among all who shape or train their shoulders, none has shoulders like these.

Twenty-second, the mark of forty teeth: there are neither more nor fewer. Other people have thirty-two teeth, more than three hundred bones in the body, and nine bones in the skull. The bodhisattva has forty teeth and one bone in the skull. The bodhisattva has more tooth-bones and fewer skull-bones; other people have fewer tooth-bones and more skull-bones. For this reason, he is different from ordinary human bodies.

Twenty-third, the mark of even teeth: all the teeth are equal, with none coarse or fine, none protruding or set back. As for the mark of closely set teeth, those who do not know would think they are one tooth; between the teeth there is not room for even a single hair.

Twenty-fourth, the mark of white canine teeth: their brightness even surpasses the radiance of the king of snowy mountains.

Twenty-fifth, the mark of lion-like cheeks: like the king of beasts, the lion, his cheeks are even and broad.

Twenty-sixth, the mark of obtaining the finest flavor among flavors. Some say that when the Buddha places food in his mouth, all food becomes the finest flavor. Why? Because within every food there is a cause for the finest flavor. A person without this mark cannot bring forth that cause, and therefore does not obtain the finest flavor.

Others say that when the bodhisattva lifts food and places it in his mouth, then from two places beside the throat nectar flows and blends with the flavors. Because this flavor is pure, it is called obtaining the finest flavor among flavors.

Twenty-seventh, the mark of a broad tongue: this bodhisattva's broad tongue, when extended from the mouth, covers the entire face up to the hairline. When it returns into the mouth, the mouth is still not filled.

Twenty-eighth, the mark of a Brahma voice: like Brahma, the heavenly king, five kinds of voice come forth from his mouth. First, it is very deep, like thunder. Second, it is clear and penetrating, heard from afar, and those who hear it are joyful. Third, it enters the heart and inspires reverent affection. Fourth, it is true, clear, and easy to understand. Fifth, those who listen never grow weary of it.

The bodhisattva's voice is also like this. Five kinds of voice come forth from his mouth: the mark of the kalaviṅka voice, lovely like the sound of the kalaviṅka bird; and the mark of the drum voice, deep and far-reaching like the sound of a great drum.

Twenty-ninth, the mark of truly blue eyes: they are like fine blue lotus flowers.

Thirtieth, the mark of eyelashes like those of an ox: like the eyelashes of the king of oxen, they are long, beautiful, and not disordered.

Thirty-first, the mark of the crown protuberance: the bodhisattva has a bony protuberance, about the size of a fist, on the crown of the head.

Thirty-second, the mark of the white hair: a white hair grows between the eyebrows, neither high nor low. It is white, pure, curls to the right, and when extended is five feet long.

The physiognomists said, "The thirty-two marks of a great person of Prince Deva of the Earth are like this. The bodhisattva possesses all of these marks."

Question:

A wheel-turning sage king has the thirty-two marks, and a bodhisattva also has the thirty-two marks. What difference is there between them?

Answer:

The bodhisattva's marks surpass the marks of a wheel-turning sage king in seven ways. The bodhisattva's marks are: first, pure and beautiful; second, distinct; third, never misplaced; fourth, complete; fifth, deeply set; sixth, in accord with wisdom and not in accord with the world; and seventh, in accord with renunciation. The marks of a wheel-turning sage king are not like this.

Question:

What is meant by a "mark"?

Answer:

Because it is easy to recognize, it is called a mark. For example, water is different from fire; because of their marks, they are known.

Question:

Why does the bodhisattva have exactly thirty-two marks, neither more nor fewer?

Answer:

Some say that the Buddha adorns his body with the thirty-two marks because they make it upright, proper, and not disordered. If there were fewer, the body would not be upright and proper. If there were more, the Buddha's bodily marks would be confused. These thirty-two marks are upright, proper, and not disordered; they cannot be increased or decreased. Just as the Buddha Dharma cannot be increased or decreased, the marks of the body are also like this.

Question:

Why does the bodhisattva adorn his body with marks?

Answer:

When some people see the marks of the Buddha's body, their minds gain pure faith. For this reason, he adorns the body with marks.

Furthermore, the Buddhas surpass others in every respect. Their bodily color, majestic power, clan, family, wisdom, meditation, liberation, and all other qualities are supreme. If the Buddha did not adorn the marks of his body, this excellence would be incomplete.

Furthermore, some say that unsurpassed, perfect awakening abides in this body. If the body's marks are not dignified and adorned, unsurpassed, perfect awakening does not abide in this body. It is like a man who wishes to marry a young woman from a noble and honored family. The woman sends a messenger to tell him, "If you wish to marry me, first you must adorn your rooms, remove filth, plaster and prepare them with fragrance, arrange beds and couches, spread bedding and fine mats, set up curtains, canopies, and hangings, banners, parasols, flowers, and incense, and make them fully adorned. Only then will I come to your house." Unsurpassed, perfect awakening is also like this. It sends wisdom as its messenger, who in future lives comes to the bodhisattva and says, "If you wish to obtain me, first cultivate the marks and secondary signs and adorn yourself with them. Only then will I abide in your body. If you do not adorn the body, I will not abide there." For this reason, the bodhisattva cultivates the thirty-two marks and adorns his own body in order to attain unsurpassed, perfect awakening.

At that time, the bodhisattva gradually grew up. Seeing the suffering of aging, sickness, and death, he gave rise to a mind of disenchantment. In the middle of the night he left home. For six years he practiced austerities. He then ate the milk-rice of rock honey, prepared by Nandā, the brahmin woman, which strengthened the body with sixteen virtues. After eating, beneath the bodhi tree, he defeated the demon army of one trillion eight hundred billion ghost soldiers and Māra's hosts, and attained unsurpassed, perfect awakening.

Question:

Because he attained what qualities is he called a Buddha?

Answer:

Because he attained the knowledge of destruction and the knowledge of non-arising, he is called a Buddha.

Furthermore, some say: because he attained the Buddha's ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the eighteen unique qualities, the three knowledges, the four unobstructed knowledges, and the three foundations of mindfulness: first, when others receive his teaching and respect him, the Buddha has no joy; second, when others do not receive his teaching and do not respect him, the Buddha has no sorrow; third, whether they respect him or do not respect him, his mind is no different. Because he attained great loving-kindness, great compassion, the thirty-seven factors of awakening, and fully knows the general and particular characteristics of all dharmas, he is called a Buddha.

Question:

Why, before attaining the Buddha path, is one called a bodhisattva, but after attaining the Buddha path, is one no longer called a bodhisattva?

Answer:

Before attaining the Buddha path, one's mind loves, seeks, and wishes to obtain unsurpassed, perfect awakening. For this reason, one is called a bodhisattva. Once one has completed the Buddha path, one further attains the Buddha's various extraordinary and great qualities, and therefore receives another name: Buddha.

It is like a prince. Before he becomes king, he is called a prince. Once he has become king, he is no longer called a prince. After he is king, although he is still a prince, he is not called a prince. The bodhisattva is also like this. Before attaining the Buddha path, he is called a bodhisattva. Once he has attained the Buddha path, he is called a Buddha.

In the Śrāvaka Dharma, the disciples of Mahākātyāyanīputra explain the meaning of the bodhisattva's characteristics in this way.

The Mahāyāna practitioners say: These disciples of Kātyāyanīputra are people still within birth and death. They do not recite or study the Mahāyāna scriptures, and they are not great bodhisattvas. They do not know the true character of all dharmas. Relying on their sharp faculties and wisdom, they compose treatises within the Buddha Dharma, explaining the bonds, knowledges, meditations, faculties, and so on. Yet even there they make mistakes in many places. How much more so when they wish to formulate a doctrine about bodhisattvas? It is like a person of little strength who cannot even leap across a small ditch; how much less could he cross a great river? In the great river, he would certainly sink and be lost.

Question:

How are they mistaken?

Answer:

As you said above, "Only after three asaṃkhyeya kalpas have passed is one called a bodhisattva." But during those three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, one gives away one's head, eyes, marrow, and brain without any regret. This is something arhats and pratyekabuddhas cannot equal.

For example, in the past, when the bodhisattva was a great caravan leader crossing the great ocean, a fierce wind destroyed the ship. He said to the merchants, "Hold on to my head, hair, hands, and feet, and I will carry you across." After the people held on to him, he killed himself with a knife. By the law of the great ocean, a corpse does not remain there, and at once a swift wind blew them to the shore. If someone with such great compassion is denied to be a bodhisattva, then who is a bodhisattva?

When his practice in the second asaṃkhyeya kalpa was complete, before he had entered the third asaṃkhyeya kalpa, he received a prediction from Dīpaṃkara Buddha that he would become a Buddha. At once he rose into the sky, saw the Buddhas of the ten directions standing in the sky, and praised Dīpaṃkara Buddha. Dīpaṃkara Buddha said, "After one asaṃkhyeya kalpa has passed, you will become a Buddha named Śākyamuni." Having received such a prediction, to say that at that time he was not yet a bodhisattva, is this not a great mistake?

The disciples of Kātyāyanīputra say, "During the three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, he does not yet have the marks of a Buddha, nor has he planted the causes and conditions for the marks of a Buddha. How, then, can one know that he is a bodhisattva? In all dharmas, there must first be a mark; only afterward can their reality be known. If there is no mark, then one cannot know."

The Mahāyāna practitioners say:

"Receiving a prediction that he will become a Buddha, rising into the sky, and seeing the Buddhas of the ten directions, are these not great marks? To be predicted by a Buddha that one will become a Buddha: this is a great mark. You discard this great mark and instead seize upon the thirty-two marks!

The thirty-two marks are also possessed by a wheel-turning sage king, and devas and Māra kings can also conjure these marks. Nanda, Devadatta, and others each had thirty marks. The brahmin Bāvari had three marks. Mahākāśyapa's wife had the mark of golden color. Even people in the present world each have one or two marks, such as blue eyes, long arms, or an upper body like a lion. Since these various marks may be many or few, why do you attach such importance to them?

In what scripture does it say that during the three asaṃkhyeya kalpas the bodhisattva does not plant the causes and conditions for the marks? For example, Nanda bathed Vipaśyin Buddha and made the vow to obtain purity and beauty. At the stūpa of a pratyekabuddha, he used blue-black pigment to coat the wall and made an image of the pratyekabuddha. Because of this he made the vow, 'May I always obtain the bodily mark of golden color.' He also built a middle level of Kāśyapa Buddha's stūpa. Through these three meritorious causes and conditions, in life after life he received happiness, and wherever he was born he always obtained dignity and beauty. As the remainder of this merit, he was born among the Śākyas in Kapilavastu, became a disciple of the Buddha, obtained thirty marks of a great person, was pure and handsome, left home, and attained the path of an arhat. The Buddha said that among his five hundred disciples, the monk Nanda was foremost in beauty. Since these marks are easy to obtain, how can you say, "They are planted during ninety-one great kalpas and obtained in the remaining one lifetime"? This is a great mistake!

You say, "In the first asaṃkhyeya kalpa, he does not know whether he will become a Buddha or not. In the second asaṃkhyeya kalpa, he knows that he will become a Buddha, but does not declare it himself. In the third asaṃkhyeya kalpa, he knows that he will attain Buddhahood and is able to tell others." Where did the Buddha say this? In what scripture is this statement found? Is it taught in the Tripiṭaka of the Śrāvaka Dharma? Or is it taught in the Mahāyāna?

The disciples of Kātyāyanīputra say, "Although it is not stated in the Tripiṭaka spoken by the Buddha's mouth, according to the principle it should be so. This is how it is taught in the Bodhisattva Chapter of the Abhidharma Vibhāṣā."

Answer:

In the Mahāyāna it says, "At the first arising of the mind, at that time one knows: I will become a Buddha." For example, when Bodhisattva Acala first gave rise to the mind beside Dīrghapāṇi Buddha, down to the time when he sat at the vajra seat and attained the Buddha path, throughout that interval no inverted or impure mind arose.

As in the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, there are four kinds of bodhisattvas and four kinds of predictions: some receive a prediction before giving rise to the mind; some receive a prediction just as they give rise to the mind; some have already received a prediction, and others all know it, though they themselves do not know; and some have already received a prediction, and both others and they themselves all know it. How, then, can you say, "In the second asaṃkhyeya kalpa, he knows that he has received the prediction but does not declare it himself"?

Furthermore, the Buddha says that for immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas he made merit, wishing to liberate sentient beings. Why, then, do you say three asaṃkhyeya kalpas? Three asaṃkhyeya kalpas have measure and limit.

Question:

Although this statement exists in the Mahāyāna, I still cannot believe it all.

Answer:

This is a great mistake. This is the Buddha's true Dharma, spoken from the Buddha's own mouth. You have no ground for objection. You yourself came forth from the Mahāyāna, so how can you say, "I cannot believe it all"? Furthermore, the doctrines of the Mahāyāna should be explained at length here.

Furthermore, you say that the karmic causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks are planted in the desire realm, and not in the form realm or the formless realm. Since in the formless realm there is no body and no form, and the thirty-two marks are adornments of the body, it may be acceptable to say that they cannot be planted in the formless realm. But why can they not be planted in the form realm? In the form realm there are many Brahmā kings who constantly request the Buddha to first turn the Dharma wheel. Their wisdom is pure, and they are able to seek the Buddha path. Why, then, do you say that they cannot plant the causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks?

You also say that they can be planted among humans and not in other destinies. But the dragon king Bhagadatta is a bodhisattva of the tenth abiding, the dragon king Anavatapta is a bodhisattva of the seventh abiding, and Rāhu, the asura king, is also a great bodhisattva. Why, then, do you say that in other destinies one cannot plant the causes and conditions for the thirty-two marks? You say that among humans they are planted in Jambudvīpa, and that they cannot be planted in Uttarakuru. There is some meaning in this, because the people there have no sense of "I" and "mine," are attached to pleasure, and do not have sharp faculties. But in the two places Godānīya and Pūrvavideha, merit, wisdom, and lifespan surpass those of Jambudvīpa. Why can they not be planted there?

Furthermore, you say, "One thought plants one mark." But in the time of a finger snap, this mind arises and ceases sixty times. A single mind does not remain. Since a single mind has no strength, does not remain, and cannot make distinctions, how could it plant the mark of a great person? These marks of a great person should not be planted by an unclear mind. For this reason, many thoughts joined together are able to plant one mark. It is like a heavy object: one person cannot carry it, and the strength of many people is required. In the same way, to plant a mark, there must be a great mind and many thoughts joined together; only then can it be planted. For this reason it is called the mark of one hundred merits. One hundred great mental intentions plant merit; this is called the mark of one hundred merits. It should not be said that one thought plants one mark. Even in other matters, one thought still cannot plant one thing, how much less a mark of one hundred merits!

Why do you say that Bodhisattva Śākyamuni's mind was not yet fully matured while his disciples' minds were fully matured, and that Bodhisattva Maitreya's mind was fully matured while his disciples' minds were not yet fully matured? Where is this statement taught? There is no such thing in the Tripiṭaka or in the Mahāyāna. These words come only from your own mind. You merely see that Bodhisattva Śākyamuni, in the jeweled cave, saw Puṣya Buddha and praised him for seven days and seven nights with a single verse. Bodhisattva Maitreya also praised Puṣya Buddha in many ways, but because the Avadāna scripture does not say this, you do not know it. Without any cause or condition, you then claim that Maitreya's disciples' minds were not fully matured. All such statements are mistakes and contradictions.

You say that a bodhisattva is able to give away all things and has nothing he cherishes or withholds. For example, King Śibi, for the sake of a dove, cut off his flesh and gave it to a hawk without regret in his mind. But giving wealth and treasures is called lesser giving; giving the body is called middling giving; and in all kinds of giving, when the mind does not attach, this is supreme giving. Why do you praise middling giving as the perfection of giving fulfilled? Although in this giving the mind is great and there is much compassion, there is wisdom that knows and wisdom that does not know. For example, a person may not spare his body for his parents and relatives, or may not spare his body for his lord. For this reason, we know that not sparing the body for a dove is middling giving.

Question:

The bodhisattva is, for all sentient beings, a father and a lord. Because he acts for all people, it is not merely that he does not spare his body; for this reason, the perfection of giving is fulfilled.

Answer:

Although he acts for all sentient beings, this mind is not pure. He does not know that his own body has no self and nothing belonging to self. He does not know that the receiver has no person and no lord. He does not know that the real nature of the thing given cannot be said to be one and cannot be said to be different. Because his mind attaches to these three things, this is impure. He obtains a reward of merit in the world, but he cannot go directly to the Buddha path. As is taught in the perfection of wisdom, the three things are unattainable, and one does not attach even to non-attachment. This is the complete fulfillment of the perfection of giving.

The same applies up to the perfection of wisdom. You say that being able to divide the great earth, cities, towns, and villages into seven parts is the fulfillment of the perfection of wisdom. But this perfection of wisdom is immeasurable and boundless, like the waters of the great ocean. Devas, sages, arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and even bodhisattvas at the beginning stage still cannot know its far shore; only bodhisattvas abiding on the ten grounds can know it. How, then, can you say that being able to divide the great earth, cities, towns, and villages into seven parts is called the fulfillment of the perfection of wisdom? This is a matter of calculation. The ability to divide land is only a tiny part of worldly perfection of wisdom, like one or two drops in the waters of the great ocean.

The true perfection of wisdom is called the mother of the Buddhas of the three times, and it is able to reveal the true character of all dharmas. This perfection of wisdom has no place from which it comes and no place to which it goes. Sought everywhere, it cannot be found. It is like an illusion, like an echo, like the moon in water: when seen, it is lost. Because the noble ones are compassionate, although it has one mark, they speak of this perfection of wisdom, the treasury of all Buddhas' wisdom, using many different names. What you say is a great mistake!

You speak of four kinds of observation: observing the time, observing the land, observing the clan, and observing the place of birth. You say that when human lifespan is eighty thousand years, a Buddha appears; that when it is seventy, sixty, fifty, forty, thirty, or twenty thousand years, a Buddha appears; and that when the people of the world have a lifespan of one hundred years, that is the time when a Buddha appears. If all Buddhas always have compassion for sentient beings, why do they appear only during these eight kinds of times and not at other times? The Buddha Dharma does not wait for a time. Just as good medicine cures illness whenever it is taken, the Buddha Dharma is also like this: it does not wait for a time.

Question:

Although bodhisattvas have compassion for sentient beings and the Buddhas do not wait for a time, when human lifespan exceeds eighty thousand years, people live long, have much pleasure, and the bonds of defiled craving and the like are thick. Their faculties are dull, and it is not a time when they can be transformed. After the lifespan falls below one hundred years, people are short-lived, have much suffering, and the bonds of anger and the like become even thicker. These times of pleasure and times of suffering are not times for attaining the path. For this reason, Buddhas do not appear in the world.

Answer:

The devas have lifespans exceeding ten million years. Because of causes and conditions from past lives, although they have much pleasure and their defiled craving is thick, they are still able to attain the path. How much more so human beings, who do not have such great pleasure? Human bodies have the thirty-six kinds of impurity and are easy to teach and transform. For this reason, when human lifespan exceeds eighty thousand years, a Buddha should appear. At that time, people have no illness and their minds are joyful, so they all have sharp faculties and merit. Because they have merit and sharp faculties, they should easily attain the path.

Furthermore, in the time of Buddha Siṃhadundubhisvararāja, human lifespan was one hundred thousand years. In the time of Buddha Ālokarāja, human lifespan was seven hundred asaṃkhyeya kalpas. In Amitābha Buddha's land, human lifespan is immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas. How, then, can you say that when lifespan exceeds eighty thousand years, Buddhas do not appear in the world?

Question:

The Mahāyāna scriptures contain this teaching, but in my Dharma there are no Buddhas of the ten directions. There are only one hundred Buddhas of the past, such as Śākyamuni and Kauṇḍinya, and five hundred Buddhas of the future, such as Maitreya.

Answer:

In the Mahāyāna treatises, the Buddhas of the three times and ten directions are taught through many kinds of causes and conditions. Why? Because in the worlds of the ten directions there are aging, sickness, death, lust, anger, delusion, and the like. For this reason, Buddhas should appear in those lands. As it is said in the scriptures, if there were no aging, sickness, death, and afflictions, the Buddhas would not appear in the world.

Furthermore, where there are many sick people, there should be many physicians. In your Śrāvaka Dharma, in the Dīrgha Āgama, King Vaiśravaṇa spoke a verse to the Buddha: "I bow my head to the Buddhas of the past, future, and present; I also take refuge in Śākyamuni Buddha." Your scripture speaks of Buddhas of the past, future, and present, saying "I bow my head," and of Śākyamuni Buddha, saying "I take refuge." From this, one should know that there are other Buddhas in the present. If there were no Buddhas in other lands, why would he first bow his head to the Buddhas of the three times, and afterward separately take refuge in Śākyamuni Buddha? This king had not yet left desire behind. He attained the path under Śākyamuni Buddha, and because his reverent love was heavy, he took refuge in him; toward the other Buddhas he merely bowed his head.

Question:

The Buddha said with his own mouth that in one world two Buddhas do not appear at the same time, and that two wheel-turning kings also cannot appear at the same time. For this reason, there should not be other Buddhas in the present.

Answer:

Although there is this statement, you do not understand its meaning. The Buddha said that within one three-thousand-great-thousand world-system, two Buddhas do not appear at the same time. He did not mean that in the worlds of the ten directions there are no present Buddhas. Just as within a world of four continents, two wheel-turning sage kings do not appear at the same time, because such a person of great merit has no rival sharing the world with him, therefore there is one wheel-turning sage king in the four continents. The Buddha is also like this: within one three-thousand-great-thousand world-system, two Buddhas do not appear. The scripture speaks of Buddhas and wheel-turning sage kings in the same way. Why do you believe that in other worlds of four continents there can be other wheel-turning sage kings, but do not believe that in other three-thousand-great-thousand world-systems there can be other Buddhas?

Furthermore, one Buddha cannot succeed in liberating all sentient beings. If one Buddha could liberate all sentient beings, then other Buddhas would not be needed; only one Buddha would appear. According to the Dharma of all Buddhas, after they have liberated the sentient beings who can be liberated, they enter cessation, like a lamp going out when its oil is exhausted, because conditioned dharmas are impermanent and empty by nature. For this reason, there should now be other Buddhas.

Furthermore, sentient beings are immeasurable, and suffering is also immeasurable. Therefore, there should be bodhisattvas of great mind appearing, and there should also be immeasurable Buddhas appearing in the world to liberate sentient beings.

Question: As the scriptures say, over immeasurable years a Buddha appears only from time to time, like the udumbara tree whose flower appears only from time to time. If Buddhas fill the ten directions, then Buddhas would be easy to appear and easy to encounter, and they would not be called difficult to meet.

Answer: Not so. This means that within one great-thousand world-system, a Buddha appears only from time to time over immeasurable years; it does not say that this is difficult throughout all worlds of the ten directions. It is also spoken for people of wrongdoing who do not know reverence and are not diligent in seeking the path. For this reason it is said that over immeasurable years a Buddha appears only from time to time.

Furthermore, because these sentient beings have the karmic retribution of many offenses, they fall into the bad destinies. For immeasurable kalpas they do not even hear of a Buddha, much less see one. For the sake of such people, it is said that a Buddha's appearance in the world is difficult.

Question: If there are now many Buddhas and bodhisattvas in the ten directions, then since all sentient beings are now troubled by evil actions, offenses, and suffering, why do they not come to liberate them?

Answer: The stains of sentient beings' offenses have been deep and thick for immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas. Although they may have various other kinds of merit, because they lack the merit for seeing Buddhas, they do not see Buddhas. As a verse says:

When good karmic reward has not yet drawn near,
and declining offenses have not yet been removed,
even when present before them, they cannot see
persons of great virtue and power.

Those holy ones of great virtue
also have no discrimination in their minds.
With compassion for all people,
they wish to liberate them all at once.

When sentient beings' merit has matured
and their roots of wisdom are also sharp,
if the conditions for present liberation appear,
they immediately attain liberation.

It is like a great dragon king
who sends down many kinds of rain according to wishes.
Offense and merit follow one's original actions;
each receives according to what one has done.

Question: If someone already has merit and already has wisdom, the Buddha can liberate such a person; if someone has no merit or wisdom, the Buddha does not liberate that person. If this is so, then those who already have merit and wisdom do not need to wait for the Buddha to liberate them.

Answer: This merit and wisdom arise from causes and conditions connected with the Buddha. If the Buddha does not appear in the world, then the bodhisattvas teach and guide through many kinds of causes and conditions: the ten wholesome actions, the four immeasurable minds, and the karmic retributions of offense and merit in future lives. If there are no bodhisattvas, then the various scriptures teach these things; when people obtain these teachings, they practice the causes and conditions of merit.

Furthermore, although people may have merit and wisdom, if the Buddha does not appear in the world, they receive karmic reward within that world but cannot attain the path. If the Buddha appears in the world, only then can they attain the path. This is a great benefit. It is like a person who has eyes: when the sun has not risen, the person cannot see anything. The person must have the sun's light in order to see. One cannot say, "I have eyes, so what use is the sun?" As the Buddha says, internal and external causes and conditions can give rise to right view: first, hearing the Dharma from others; second, inwardly contemplating in accordance with the Dharma. Through the matter of merit, a wholesome mind can arise; because of sharp faculties and wisdom, one can contemplate in accordance with the Dharma. From this one knows that liberation is obtained from the Buddha. In these and many other ways, your position has many contradictions and mistakes. Because I wish to compose the discussion of the Perfection of Wisdom, I cannot go on broadly discussing other matters.