The Law That Comes Before the Vow

The Doctrinal Fascicle
The Doctrinal Fascicle divides into four gates: first, the precept-Dharma; second, the precept-essence; third, precept-conduct; fourth, precept-marks.

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "I here briefly point out the doctrine, essence, conduct, and marks, so that those coming after may have something to lean on in setting out and building up their practice." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "'Setting out' means generating the mind [of aspiration]; 'building up' means establishing practice. Once one recognizes the essence and advances in conduct, cause is accomplished and fruit obtained — hence it is said there is 'something to lean on.'"

The Procedural Commentary continues: "But the marks of the precepts run in many directions, not along a single track. The mind, too, has its own limits, and takes them up in differing measure. Were one to name every mark according to its object, the number would be limitless. Let me instead grasp the pivot and briefly set out four categories: first, the precept-Dharma; second, the precept-essence; third, precept-conduct; fourth, precept-marks." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "This passage explains the breadth of the subject. The first two lines show its breadth in terms of the Dharma itself — the Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, Ten Precepts, and full ordination make four distinct grades. The next two lines show its breadth in terms of the mind — each of the above four grades itself divides into three levels. The lines after that show its breadth in terms of objects — sentient and insentient objects alike being beyond counting. The final lines show what is essential: 'pivot' means the pivot of a door, taken here also in the sense of what is essential."

[The "three levels" mentioned here are set out later, under the Five Precepts in the second chapter, Ordination Liturgies, in the section on generating the aspiration in accordance with the object-field.]

The Zichi Commentary says: "To grasp the four categories, one must first have a brief outline. What the sage institutes as regulation is called the Dharma; what is received and becomes karmic action is called the essence; what arises relying on that essence, as guarded conduct, is called conduct; and what gives conduct its outward form is called marks. Some say that before ordination it is called 'the Dharma,' and only after ordination is it called 'the essence.' This is not so, I hold: the Dharma, in its meaning, runs through from beginning to end — how could there be a case where, once ordination has occurred, it is no longer proper to call it 'the Dharma'? One should know that the latter three all take their name from the very first, which is why each of the four may properly be called 'precept' — or, put another way, all four may be strung together under the single word 'Dharma,' so as to show that essence, conduct, and marks are not some separate, merely ordinary kind of good."

[Regarding "what gives conduct its outward form is called marks": precept-marks carry two senses. One is marks taken in terms of conduct, as stated here. The other is marks taken in terms of the Dharma itself, as shown later in the Gate of Keeping and Violating.]

The Zichi Commentary says: "Question: why exactly four, no more and no fewer? Answer: because these four take in the whole of practice from beginning to end, without deficiency or excess. Whenever any single act of practice is accomplished, all four are already fully present within it — there is an order only in the speaking of them; in actual practice they do not come one before another."

The Zichi Commentary says: "Question: how are the Dharma and the essence the same, and how do they differ? Answer: the Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says, 'The essence is the very basis the precept-Dharma depends upon.' This makes the Dharma the dependent and the essence the depended-upon, so the two cannot be called the same. It also says, 'The precept-essence is what is meant by receiving the sagely Dharma into the very core of one's heart' — which makes the Dharma exactly what is received as the precept-essence. On this basis the two cannot be called different, either. One should understand: to speak of 'the Dharma' does not necessarily mean 'the essence,' but to speak of 'the essence' necessarily means 'the Dharma.' Neither identical nor separate, neither the same nor different." The Jiyuan Commentary says: "Question: if the Dharma just is the essence, how can Dharma and essence be distinguished at all? Answer: looked at before ordination, it is merely called 'the Dharma,' and as such is without sentience. Once the aspirational vow is added, and the conditions come together to be received, karmic action is accomplished depending on the mind — it is only once this Dharma has this efficacy that it is called 'the essence.' It is like the analogy of pills of medicine: the individual ingredients, taken separately, are like the precept-Dharma; combined together into a pill, they are like the precept-essence. The pill is nothing other than the ingredients themselves, now combined — different, and yet the same; the same, and yet distinct. One should understand it in just this way." [Cited from the Jiyuan Commentary on the Yeshu, fascicle 16.]

The Zichi Commentary says: "Question: how do conduct and marks differ? Answer: they are distinguished by the three types of karma." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 3.]

["Distinguished by the three types of karma" means precept-conduct belongs to the mental karma, while precept-marks belong to bodily and verbal karma. That conduct belongs to the mind is said from the standpoint of the faculty that observes — see the later passages in the Gate of the Precept-Essence, on the Consummate-Teaching school's "being able to remember, able to uphold, able to guard," and the opening passage of the Gate of Precept-Conduct. That marks belong to body and speech is seen in the later passage on the four kinds of conduct explained in terms of karma, in the Chapter on Consummation within the Gate of Keeping and Violating. If this is so, why does the Zichi Commentary elsewhere say "the three types of karma, when carried out in cultivation, are called conduct"? Answer: that statement there also takes into account the faculty that observes.]

Gate One: The Precept-Dharma
The Gate of the Precept-Dharma divides into two chapters: first, A General Account of the Precept-Dharma; second, Ordination Liturgies.

Chapter One: A General Account of the Precept-Dharma
This chapter divides into three sections: first, Showing Its Marks and Making Its Name Clear; second, A Brief Account of the Teaching-Substance; third, Making Plain the Path by Which It Is Known.

Section One: Showing Its Marks and Making Its Name Clear
This section divides into two sub-sections: first, A Direct Showing; second, Sundry Distinctions.

Sub-section One: A Direct Showing

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "As for what is called the precept-Dharma — speaking of it purely as Dharma, it is not confined to the ordinary or the sagely. It directly shows that this Dharma alone is able to serve as the very rule by which the path of liberation is accomplished. It is essential that the recipient believe and know that this exists." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "Within the passage on showing its marks, the opening sentence gives the heading, and what follows the word 'directly' gives the direct explanation. Although the Dharma pertains to both [ordinary and sage] alike, the text cannot spell this out in full, so it speaks of it only from the sage's side — hence the word 'directly.' 'Serve as the rule by which it is accomplished' shows the meaning of the Dharma; 'the path of liberation' is what the sage has realized. The clause beginning 'it is essential' gives the reason this is spoken of from the sage's side. Yet this passage only shows the power the Dharma has — the text does not point out explicitly what, exactly, this Dharma is; the intent is to have the student think it through and arrive at it for himself."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "Although it is a Dharma that ordinary beings and sages alike possess in common, what is received here — spoken of in terms of what it will one day become — is called 'sage-Dharma.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "Within the passage on making its name clear, the first two lines pick up the thread from before; what follows the word 'here' gives the direct showing. 'What it will one day become' means the three trainings cultivated from the first fruit [of stream-entry] onward, which are called the sage's path. Although the recipient is, here and now, still an ordinary being, this is nonetheless called 'sage-Dharma' — a case of borrowing the name of the future fruit while still in the causal stage." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 3.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "Question: everyone knows about 'receiving' precepts, but what exactly is it that is received? Answer, according to the interpretation handed down: what is received is called 'sage-Dharma.' Because of this Dharma, one honors and guards it, keeping it pure as a bright pearl, since it is able to serve as the very foundation on which the sage's path is built." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Although those who receive precepts are many, they do not, of themselves, know the essence of what they have received. Wishing to alert students to this, [the Commentary] therefore raises this question. In the answer, 'handed down' means received from the interpretation of the ancients: it names the cause by the fruit, since this Dharma is able to lead through to the sage's path, and also so as to keep the recipient from holding himself too lightly." [Cited from the Jiyuan Commentary on the Yeshu, fascicle 15.]

Sub-section Two: Sundry Distinctions
This sub-section divides into three parts: first, Transformation and Regulation; second, Wholesome Action and Precept; third, Nature-Offense and Proscribed-Offense.

Part One: Transformation and Regulation

"Transformation and regulation" refers to the teachings of transformation and the regulatory teaching. The regulatory teaching is also called "the practice-teaching." Although the Commentary on the Precept-Text (Jieshu), in its section on the boundaries comprehended by the teachings, lists "the practice-teaching" and "the regulatory teaching" as separate items, elsewhere in the Procedural Commentary, the Jieshu, and their sub-commentaries the two terms are used interchangeably; the meaning can evidently be reconciled. Likewise, although the Jieshu confines itself to speaking of "the three wheels," elsewhere the Procedural Commentary, the Jieshu, and their sub-commentaries all divide the teaching in two, using either "transformation and practice" or "transformation and regulation." The Zichi Commentary notes: in the Jieshu the division is sometimes by "the three wheels," sometimes by "transformation and practice," sometimes by "transformation and regulation," and sometimes by "regulation and permission" — the Jieshu itself adopts "the three wheels," while the present text uses "transformation and practice"; this is simply usage suited to the occasion, and there is no need to force the terms into agreement.

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "From ancient times, on close examination the teaching has always divided into two paths. The teachings of transformation extend to monastics and laity alike, and are devoted entirely to opening the door of faith and understanding. The regulatory teaching is confined strictly to monastics, and does nothing but clarify the business of upholding and observing conduct." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "This passage sets the two teachings side by side to bring out their two differences. 'Monastic and lay' against 'monastics alone' marks a difference in whom each reaches; 'faith and understanding' against 'upholding and observing' marks a difference in how each law is established. The Jieshu says: what is meant by 'the teachings of transformation'? They expound and instruct so as to let beings tell wrong from right; the teaching's basic purpose is to transform people by opening their understanding, and it is not, in its origin, established in response to any particular offense. As for 'the regulatory teaching': it necessarily arises in response to an offense and is legislated according to that offense; it speaks only of keeping and violating, and its business covers both what is to be stopped and what is to be done — the single Vinaya tradition of precepts and discipline is confined to this teaching alone."

The Jiyuan Commentary says: "The Ten Wholesome Actions, the Five Methods for Stilling the Mind, the Four Universal Vows, the six pāramitās, and every practice of contemplation belong to the karmic domain of the teachings of transformation. Everything the Vinaya expounds — permission and prohibition, light and grave — belongs to the karmic domain of the regulatory teaching. Transformation is grounded in principle, and principle admits of being followed or violated; regulation is set in terms of legislated conduct, and legislated conduct admits of being kept or broken." [The above is all found in the Jiyuan Commentary on the Yeshu, fascicle 1.]

The Zichi Commentary says: "The Buddha's teaching, across his whole lifetime, reduces in the end to transformation and practice. What opens up faith and understanding, leaving whether it is taken up or set aside to the recipient's own conditions, is called the teachings of transformation. What legislates observance, such that violating it constitutes an offense, is called the practice-teaching."

[Passages distinguishing the teachings of transformation from the regulatory teaching recur throughout the Procedural Commentary, the Jieshu, and their sub-commentaries, all largely to the same effect; not all can be reproduced here. Based on the passages above, a table is given below to show the two apart.]

Teachings of transformation — reach: monastics and laity alike; aim: open faith and understanding; basis: meant to open wisdom, not established in response to any offense; examples: the Ten Wholesome Actions, the Five Methods for Stilling the Mind, and the like; character: taking up or setting aside left to one's own conditions.
The regulatory teaching (practice-teaching) — reach: monastics only; aim: legislates observance; basis: keeping and violating are fixed and regulated according to the offense; examples: permission and prohibition, light and grave, and the like; character: violation constitutes an offense.

The Zichi Commentary says: "Question: since the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts are themselves precept-legislation, should they not be classed under the practice-teaching? Answer: they are classed under the teachings of transformation." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 2.]

[In the Nanshan Vinaya, the Ten Precepts of the novice and full ordination are classed under the regulatory teaching, while the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts are classed under the teachings of transformation. On examination, however, the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts differ from the teachings of transformation in the ordinary sense: name-wise they are classed with the teachings of transformation, but in substance they amount to the regulatory teaching. Although their sense reaches into regulation, the teaching itself remains, in the end, confined to transformation — exactly as the Four-Part Vinaya's own tradition is, name-wise, classed as Hīnayāna, but in substance amounts to Mahāyāna: although its sense reaches into the Great Vehicle, the teaching itself remains, in the end, confined to the lesser. This point recurs repeatedly throughout the Doctrinal Fascicle.]

[The reason the Five Precepts and the like "amount to the regulatory teaching" is this: the Commentary on Karman Procedures says, "In instituting the teaching, the Tathāgata made it like empty space — whichever single aspect of it is set up, it takes in the whole of cultivation without remainder. The Five Precepts are a law extended to the laity, and yet their essence is the very rule that runs through the whole monastic path: keeping and violating support one another, and disqualifying impediments are screened for on equal footing." (This passage from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, together with the Jiyuan Commentary's gloss on it, is given in full at the head of the second chapter, Ordination Liturgies, below — the reader should look them up there.) The textual evidence is entirely clear, and there is no room for doubt.]

Part Two: Wholesome Action and Precept

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "Question: is every wholesome act a precept? Answer: a wholesome act subsumed within formal discipline is called a precept; the rest of the ten wholesome courses of action are simply called 'wholesome,' and are not called precept." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Precept carries two defining features: first, an original vow undertaken in advance; second, that it extends over the entire realm of sentient beings. Ordinary wholesome action lacks both, and so is not called precept." [Cited from the Jiyuan Commentary on the Yeshu, fascicle 15.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "One should draw a fourfold analysis. First, wholesome but not precept — namely, the last three of the ten courses of action; the Vinaya does not legislate against an offense committed by thought alone. Second, precept but not wholesome — namely, the wrongful vocational precepts. Third, both wholesome and precept — namely, the first seven of the ten wholesome courses of action: carried out without any prior vow, they are simply called 'wholesome'; taken up instead with a vow and sustained effort, they are called 'precept.' Fourth, neither — bodily and verbal actions that are karmically indeterminate." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In the first item, 'the last three' means greed, hatred, and wrong view. These are prohibited by the teachings of transformation, and so are called wholesome; the Vinaya does not legislate against them, so they are not called precept. Under the Four-Part Vinaya's own rule of repeated conditions, however, they can be brought under the ten courses of action and classed as precept as well — and reckoned in terms of the bodhisattva precepts, all ten wholesome courses of action are precept. One should understand it this way. In the third item, the opening shows its mark, and what follows explains it from both sides: 'without a prior vow' shows that ordinary worldly wholesomeness lacks the essence of a vow; 'taken up instead' means that, having undertaken a vow and received the essence, one then cultivates in accordance with that essence." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 16.]

Part Three: Nature-Offense and Proscribed-Offense

The Commentary on the Precept-Text (Jieshu) says: "In clarifying proscribed-offense and nature-offense: because the conditions that give rise to evil cannot simply be enumerated one by one, they are gathered, by their underlying meaning, into two broad categories."

The Jieshu continues: "As for what is called 'nature-evil': take the ten unwholesome courses of action — in their very substance they violate reason, and regardless of whether the great sage prohibits them or not, carrying out such a violating act brings a bitter fruit; hence it is called nature-evil. This is exactly why the Tathāgata legislated precepts to guard against and restrain it. Were it not legislated, the karma would bind beings to the three evil destinies, they would not remain within the human path at all — how, then, could they cultivate any good? Hence the prohibition, established in response to the offense, takes its name from the underlying evil itself; because it prohibits nature-evil, it is called a nature-offense precept." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "The opening explains the meaning of 'nature': 'nature' here means the very substance — an evil that violates reason and arises from the mind itself, not something that exists only because it has been prohibited; hence 'regardless of whether... or not.' What follows joins this to the meaning of 'precept': the first part explains why prohibition is needed, and what follows explains how the prohibition is established — on top of the underlying karmic offense, a further offense of transgressing the prohibition is added, hence 'established in response to.' One should understand that the term 'nature-offense precept' raises both the underlying karmic act and the legislated prohibition together, at once."

The Jieshu continues: "As for what is called 'proscribed': before the sage prohibited it, carrying it out incurred no offense at all — since it is not, in itself, an inherently wrong act, it did no harm to wholesome merit. Only once it has been prohibited does contact with it defile more deeply, obstructing and disturbing the cultivation of the path and inviting the world's censure; hence it is called 'proscribed.'" The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "The opening shows the reverse of the preceding nature-evil. What follows explains how the offense comes about only because of the prohibition. 'Contact defiles more deeply' means that violations become frequent once the act is habitual; 'obstructing the path and inviting censure' is a loss to both oneself and others at once."

The Jieshu also says: "A nature-offense carries three faults: first, it is an evil act that violates reason; second, it violates the Buddha's broad prohibition; third, it is able to obstruct the karma of the path. A proscribed-offense carries only two of these — its substance does not violate reason — hence it is called 'proscribed.'" [The above is all found in the Xingzong Commentary on the Jieshu, fascicle 5.]

[Having now clarified the two senses of proscribed-offense and nature-offense, applied to the Five and Eight Precepts: the first four belong to nature-offense, while the precept against alcohol and the like are proscribed-offenses. What nature-evil is should now be clear. What proscribed-evil is, the Commentary on Karman Procedures explains briefly by citing the Abhidharmakośa, quoted below.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "The Treatise on the Abhidharmakośa says: because of drinking alcohol, one straightaway loses the awareness of what is and is not proper conduct — hence one must give up ornamentation. If one is used to habitual ornamentation, an extremely drunken and disordered mind does not arise. If one makes use of a high, luxurious resting-place, or of song, dance, and music — whichever one of these one takes up — breaking the precepts is not far off. If one eats according to the proper time, one gives up the eating-outside-the-proper-time one was previously accustomed to. Keeping the Eight Precepts in mind gives rise to a mind of aversion and its supporting aids; without this eighth item, these latter two would not arise." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Alcohol disorders one's nature, making it impossible to distinguish right from wrong, and so leaves one liable to violate all the other precepts. 'Give up habitual ornamentation' means that flowered garlands and the like, habitual among worldly people, count as 'old ornamentation' — one now gives all of this up, retaining only what is ordinarily worn, hence 'give up.' A high bed fosters arrogance, and music and song stir the passions — both bring one close to breaking the precepts. 'According to the proper time' means not eating past noon. 'Keeping the Eight Precepts in mind' means that, since no other thought intrudes, evil is thereby extinguished; 'a mind of aversion arises' means that, taking no pleasure in worldly conditions, good is thereby generated. Were one not to moderate one's eating, a full stomach and craving for flavor would keep these latter two minds from ever arising." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Section Two: A Brief Account of the Teaching-Substance

The Zichi Commentary says: "Now, a teaching takes explaining and expressing as its work, and adapting to the capacity of its hearers as its function. Though it opens its doors and windows wide, its rule and measure never vary; though it fixes its models firmly, it still takes in every being without exception. The Buddha's perfect voice responds to each hearer in turn, in ways ordinary feeling and thought can hardly fathom. Let us therefore rely on the three schools set out in the Commentary on Karman Procedures to show this tradition's own placement of the teaching. Now, a teaching is established by its substance, and that substance is the very source of the teaching — hence one must distinguish the character of the teaching in terms of substance and function.
"First, the Real-Dharma school, that is, the Sarvāstivāda branch: this school, in explaining the substance, holds that it comes down, in either case, to an aggregate of physical matter; in subsequent conduct it guards only the seven branches, and bodily-and-verbal physical action, even at the stage of distant preparation, already constitutes an offense — this is called the properly-apportioned Hīnayāna teaching. Second, the Nominal-Designation school, that is, the Dharmaguptaka branch now followed by this tradition: this school, in discussing the substance, forcibly names it 'neither'; in its precepts it corresponds to the ten courses of action, and repeated deliberation and awareness alone already fall under an offense — this is called the Hīnayāna teaching that exceeds its own apportionment. Third, the Consummate-Teaching school: this uses the Nirvāṇa Sūtra's own method of opening and reconciling the provisional teachings, resolving the provisional vehicles into the one real path together; hence, examining the substance received, it holds this to be seeds infused into the storehouse-consciousness, and in subsequent conduct it is identical with the consummate cultivation of the three collections of pure precepts, such that even the slightest indulgence of a deluded thought already constitutes karmic action — this is called the Mahāyāna teaching carried through to its utter limit.
"Now, the Four-Part Vinaya properly belongs to the Nominal-Designation school. Because it has, deep within it, the capacity to also take in the shallower teaching, it draws in the Sarvāstivāda school as well at its margins; and because the teaching carries within it the sense of partially opening onto the Mahayana, it ultimately joins together with the Consummate Teaching. In this way the Great and Lesser Vehicles, the passable and the blocked, the real and the nominal, the deep and the shallow, of this one magnificent exposition, stand out plainly for all to see." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 1.]

The Real and the Nominal, two schools — the Real-Dharma school: the Sarvāstivāda branch, the Sarvāstivāda-vinaya (Daśabhāṇavāra), the Kośa, the *Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya, the *Vinayamātṛkā, and such, called "the Multi school"; the Nominal-Designation school: the Dharmaguptaka branch, the Four-Part Vinaya, the *Tattvasiddhi-śāstra, and such, called "the Tattvasiddhi school."

The three schools of the Commentary on Karman Procedures — the Real-Dharma school: the substance received comes down to an aggregate of physical matter; subsequent conduct guards only the seven branches, and bodily-and-verbal physical action, even at the stage of distant preparation, already constitutes an offense. The Nominal-Designation school: the substance received is forcibly named "neither"; subsequent conduct corresponds to the ten courses of action, and repeated deliberation and awareness alone already fall under an offense. The Consummate-Teaching school: the substance received is seeds infused into the storehouse-consciousness; subsequent conduct is the consummate cultivation of the three collections of pure precepts, and the slightest indulgence of a deluded thought already constitutes karmic action.

[The three schools of the Commentary on Karman Procedures form the pivotal doctrine of the whole Nanshan Vinaya. The Zichi Commentary's account of each school's received substance and subsequent conduct is stated in brief words but carries a broad meaning, difficult for a beginner to follow. The relevant passages are gathered and briefly explained below.]

["The substance received" is the karmic substance generated at the moment of ordination. "Comes down to an aggregate of physical matter" refers generally to the Real-Dharma school's teaching that both the act-precept and the non-act precept have physical matter as their substance. "Forcibly named 'neither'" refers specifically to the Nominal-Designation school's teaching that the non-act precept has, as its substance, something that is neither physical matter nor mind. "Seeds infused into the storehouse-consciousness" refers specifically to the Consummate-Teaching school's teaching that the non-act precept has wholesome seeds as its substance. The meaning of "substance received" in all three schools is treated fully in the next gate, the Gate of the Precept-Essence.]

["Subsequent conduct" means holding the precepts in mind and guarding them once ordination has taken place. "Guards only the seven branches" means the first seven of the ten courses of action — killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter. Under the Multi school, only full ordination guards all seven branches; the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts guard only the first four. Under the Tattvasiddhi school, the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts likewise guard all seven. "Bodily-and-verbal physical action... already constitutes an offense" means that under the Multi school an offense is determined without reference to the mind — even the offense of distant preparation requires physical action to constitute a violation. As for "corresponds to the ten courses of action, and repeated deliberation and awareness alone already fall under an offense": although the Tattvasiddhi school likewise extends to all ten courses of action as the Mahayana does, the Mahayana reckons by the merest flicker of thought, while this school reckons by repeated deliberation — hence the two differ in depth. "The merest flicker" means an isolated, momentary thought arising on its own — the same as what is meant below by "the slightest indulgence of a deluded thought already constitutes karmic action." "Repeated deliberation" means a later thought that returns to dwell on what came before; hence in the Mahayana the very first thought already constitutes an offense, while in the Tattvasiddhi school it is only the following thought that does. The meaning of subsequent conduct in the Multi and Tattvasiddhi schools is treated fully later, in the Chapter on Consummation within the Gate of Keeping and Violating.]

[The meaning of the three collections is explained later, under the Five Precepts, in the section on generating the aspiration in accordance with the object-field. The meaning of consummate cultivation is explained in full later, in the treatment of the Consummate-Teaching school in the Gate of the Precept-Essence.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "The Buddha's teaching over his whole lifetime amounts to nothing more than the Great and Lesser Vehicles, yet the persons, principles, teachings, and practices involved are none of them quite the same — still, one must have at least a rough sense of their relative depth. Within our own tradition, reckoned by the substance originally received, the teaching divides into three positions. First, the Ten-Recitations Vinaya and the Multi school, named the properly-apportioned Hīnayāna teaching. Second, the Four-Part Vinaya and the Tattvasiddhi-śāstra, properly Hīnayāna yet also taking in the Mahayana, named the Hīnayāna teaching that exceeds its own apportionment. Third, the Consummate Teaching, wholly Mahayana. Our tradition here properly relies on the Tattvasiddhi school, drawing on the Multi school at its margins, and in the end returns to the Consummate Teaching — taking up the Nirvāṇa Sūtra's own intent of revealing buddha-nature, discoursing on constancy, and lending it repeated support.
"Students, when reading the text, should not run these together in confusion. This is because, looked at from the standpoint of the Lesser Vehicle toward the Great, Great and Lesser stand worlds apart; yet looked at from the standpoint of the Great Vehicle taking in the Lesser, there is nothing in the Lesser that is not already the Great. This is exactly why the Procedural Commentary cites the Śrīmālā Sūtra and the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom to the effect that the śrāvaka Vinaya is itself Mahayana learning; and why the Jieshu, citing the Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra, notes that although the five Vinaya lineages differ, this is no obstacle to their all reaching the same Dharma-realm and Nirvāṇa of every Buddha; and why it further cites the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings, which says that the water of the Dharma is one, and it is only rivers, streams, wells, and ponds that divide it into apparent varieties. Our own tradition, following all of these senses, uses the Consummate Teaching's own intent to run through and unify the whole Vinaya vehicle.
"As for how the old Master Guang simply classed the Four-Part Vinaya outright as Mahayana — this is far too loose and sweeping. That recent generations have handed this down as though it were the final word shows a complete failure to understand the true boundary between Great and Lesser. And there are others who refuse to allow even a partial opening onto the Mahayana, insisting it is Hīnayāna through and through — this, too, fails to grasp the relative merits of the Real-Dharma and Nominal-Designation schools. 'Going too far is no better than not going far enough' — this is exactly what is meant here." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 1.]

[The "old Master Guang" here is the Northern Qi dynasty Vinaya master Huiguang.]

Section Three: Making Plain the Path by Which It Is Known
This section divides into five parts: first, The Very Root of the Sage's Path; second, The Great Function of Precept; third, A Brief Explanation of Its Names; fourth, Its Superiority Over Other Kinds; fifth, Whether One May Re-Take What Has Already Been Received.

Part One: The Very Root of the Sage's Path

The Commentary on the Precept-Text (Jieshu) says: "This is exactly why the great sage descended into the world, first opening the very root of transformation. Wishing to rescue every mode of existence and bring them together to the far shore, he legislated precepts for the sake of the path — not, in their origin, for worldly merit." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "'For the sake of the path,' spoken broadly, refers to the three vehicles. Tracing the Buddha's original intent — reaching all the way down to the Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views — it is, from beginning to end, a leading-in toward the one real vehicle. Moreover, the sutras' own reconciling of the vehicles shows that different paths return to the same place, and the repeated support Nirvāṇa lends to this teaching is nothing other than the revealing of buddha-nature. What is explained here as 'for the sake of the path' points specifically to the Buddha-vehicle; resting content in a mere conjured way-station was never the original intent. Hence one knows that the very root of transformation is not even the two lesser vehicles — how much less could it be a matter of precept kept merely for worldly merit."

[The "Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views" here means the Three Refuges — simply receiving the threefold refuge alone.]

The Jieshu continues: "Yet affliction and delusion are hard to clear away, and require skillful means; hence the three trainings were established as the means for curing their root. This is why the Treatise on Establishing Reality says: precept is like seizing the thief, concentration like binding him, wisdom like putting him to death — the three acts of practice depend on one another, and not one of them can be spared even for a moment. This is why the beginning practitioner must first of all learn the precepts, examining and restraining every wrongdoing; once the three types of karma are purified, right concentration and right wisdom establish themselves naturally." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "Wishing to explain why the three trainings were set up, I give here a brief account, so the text will not seem obstructed. All sentient beings, from the very beginning, are fully endowed with a true, subtle, wondrous nature, and this nature, in its very substance, is nothing but stillness and illumination. The moment this nature is obscured, it becomes clouded and scattered — reversed and renamed 'ignorance' — accumulating into affliction and delusion, conceiving a self and another, and, following whatever object it meets, stirring up the poison and beating the drum of body, speech, and mind, thereby creating the karma of birth-and-death. Beings are swept along through the destinies for kalpa after kalpa without end. The Great Awakened One, in compassion, wishing to lead them out of suffering, examined the disease and prescribed the medicine, dividing it into three kinds: against the mind's own inner clouding and agitation he set up concentration and wisdom; against wrongdoing of body and speech he set up pure precepts. However many the sagely teachings, they do not go beyond these three trainings, and the three trainings, in what they are established upon, rest only on body and mind. Considered in terms of how they arise, one proceeds from the root out to the branches; considered in terms of how they are applied as a cure, one deals first with the coarse and only then with the fine. That precepts are legislated first is exactly for this reason — it is like turbid water: while the wind still stirs its waves, there is no possibility at all of its becoming clear and settled. The sequence of the three trainings is a matter of necessity in the nature of things; to depart from this ordinary pattern is to move entirely away from the path. 'Affliction' means clouded turbidity; 'delusion' means disordered agitation. The three poisons and their fetters plunder one's stock of wholesome wealth, hence the analogy of a thief. 'The three acts of practice depend on one another' means they arise in sequence; 'not one of them can be spared even for a moment' means they cannot be separated from one another." [The above is all found in the Xingzong Commentary on the Jieshu, fascicle 1.]

The Zichi Commentary says: "Of the merit of the Five Aggregates of the Dharma-body, precept stands first; of unsurpassed bodhi, precept is the very root. How could one abandon precept and seek the sage's path by some other way? This is exactly what the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom means by 'wishing to fly without wings, wishing to cross the water without a boat.' The sage's own words urge this so earnestly — how could one fail to believe them?" [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 15.]

Part Two: The Great Function of Precept

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "Now, that which allows the Three Jewels to flourish in peace, that by which the nine destinies receive their teacher's instruction, that in which every practice finds its home, and that on which the worthy and the sage alike rely — all of this is necessarily rooted in precept." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The first clause is the meaning of sustaining; the second, the meaning of governing beings; the third, the meaning of setting out toward the path; the fourth, the meaning of being the very root and foundation. These four clauses together take in the whole function of precept. The text sets out this function yet leads with naming its great use, because it is only once the use is seen that the function becomes visible — function is made manifest through use, which is why use is named first." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 15.]

Part Three: A Brief Explanation of Its Names

The Procedural Commentary says: "According to the original Sanskrit, three names are set out in full. First, 'Vinaya,' translated as 'law.' Second, 'śīla,' translated as 'precept.' Third, 'prātimokṣa,' rendered here as 'liberation at every point.' This shows the three in their proper order, spanning the whole course of a single transformation from beginning to end. Law is grounded in teaching; teaching does not arise on its own, but must explain the marks of conduct, and precept is thereby established on its basis. Precept is not an empty cause — it must bear a fruit that is won through it — hence liberation, the cutting-off of every bond, comes properly last of all." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "'The whole course of a single transformation from beginning to end' — this threefold sequence of teaching, practice, and fruit is not confined to precept and discipline alone; every gate of the teaching follows this same order."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "Next, their meaning is clarified. First, 'law' means 'the Dharma' — that is, the laws governing what is and is not an offense, light and grave, and so forth, all of which the Vinaya expounds; this is what the teaching explains. Second, the meaning of 'precept': 'precept' means to rise up — its nature runs through both good and evil alike, which is why the category of wrongful vocational precepts, too, can properly share this same name; taken in this sense, 'precept' properly means 'to forbid.' Third, the meaning of 'liberation': taken in its near sense, this names a fruit obtained in due portion, since the conditions for the seven bodily-and-verbal offenses are not just one but each is guarded against in turn, so that one is liberated at each point according to that mark; taken in its far sense, this is the merit of precept by which, through precept as cause, one wins the sage's fruit — that final cutting-off of every bond depends on holding fast to precept as its root." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In explaining the meaning of 'law' there are two parts: the first line glosses the word — 'Dharma' takes 'fixing a standard' as its meaning; what follows explains the sense — every precept-text divides broadly in two, first clarifying what constitutes an offense, then what does not; within offenses there is a further twofold division, light and grave, and these four categories together take in the whole of the Vinaya canon; within light and grave there is further the distinction of cause and effect, of a condition lacking or present, of permission and prohibition, hence 'and so forth.' This shows that the name 'law' is established from the standpoint of the teaching. Next, in explaining the meaning of 'precept': precept is named after its nature, and nature runs through all three moral qualities, but here the text speaks only of good and evil, which do not tolerate one another, each obtaining the sense of 'forbidding' in its own way. The wrongful vocational precepts are also called 'evil precept' — butchers, hunters, and outcastes who constantly carry out killing are said to have taken up the wrongful ground of the wrongful vocational precepts. In explaining the meaning of 'liberation,' the near and far senses are used. In the near sense, 'in due portion' shows this is not a sudden, total liberation, but is exactly the sense of 'at every point.' In the far sense: this reckons what is received at the ordinary stage against the sage's fruit realized afterward, hence 'taken in its far sense' — this is exactly the earlier meaning of 'the very root of the sage's path.' 'Sage' here covers all three vehicles together; 'bonds' covers the five abodes of affliction in full. Question: on what basis are the near and far senses distinguished? Answer: there are several ways. First, the near sense concerns stopping karmic action, the far sense concerns eliminating affliction itself. Second, the near sense belongs to the ordinary stage, the far sense to the sage's path. Third, the near sense is taken from the standpoint of cause, the far sense from the standpoint of fruit. Fourth, the near sense is gradual guarding, the far sense is sudden breaking-through." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 15.]

Translated names — Vinaya: translated "law"; śīla: translated "precept"; prātimokṣa: translated "liberation at every point" (the Jieshu translates it simply "liberation").
Explained meanings — law: the Dharma; precept: forbidding; liberation-at-every-point: near sense, a fruit obtained in due portion, i.e. "at every point"; far sense, the sage's fruit, i.e. "liberation."

Part Four: Its Superiority Over Other Kinds

The Zichi Commentary says: "Within 'superiority' — 'superior' simply means 'more excellent.' Elsewhere, both before and after this passage, the discussion treats the prātimokṣa precepts alone; here it brings in the path-concurrent and concentration-concurrent precepts as well, precisely in order to set them side by side and bring out just how much more excellent the merit of the prātimokṣa precepts is."

Prātimokṣa — the prātimokṣa precepts (liberation at every point), also called the mokṣa precepts, received through the formal ordination procedure.
Concentration — concentration-concurrent precepts, also called meditative precepts, arising together with meditative concentration.
Path — path-concurrent precepts, also called undefiled precepts, arising together with undefiled wisdom. [The latter two both arise spontaneously, following directly from the mind.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Vibhāṣā says: the mokṣa precepts exist only while a Buddha is present in the world; because they are rare, they are superior. The meditative and undefiled precepts, by contrast, exist at all times. Second: the mokṣa precepts extend to both sentient and insentient objects alike — being broader in scope, they are called superior; the other two are confined to sentient objects, and being narrower, cannot compare. Third: the mokṣa precepts arise from a mind of loving-kindness, and are therefore superior, being able to serve as the very cause of the Buddha's path. Fourth: the mokṣa precepts reach across all seven assemblies, carrying forward the three vehicles, the Three Jewels, and the three paths — their power to sustain is strong, a power the other two lack, and so they are inferior. Fifth: the mokṣa precepts belong only to disciples of the Buddha; the meditative precepts, by contrast, are also possessed by non-Buddhist practitioners." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The Vibhāṣā gives five points: first, time; second, object; third, mind; fourth, function; fifth, person. In the first, 'rare against constant' means the mokṣa precepts require a Buddha's presence in the world to be legislated at all, while the other two — even where no Buddha has appeared — can still be attained by those who reach concentration or realize the path, and so exist at all times. In the second, on object: the mokṣa precepts forbid both proscribed-offenses and nature-offenses across the board; the other two only restrain nature-evil. Third, on mind: loving-kindness is precisely the great mind, and is therefore the Buddha's own cause. The treatise says the meditative and undefiled precepts are not obtained through a mind of loving-kindness, but through wisdom alone — being wholly self-benefiting, the mind of the two lesser vehicles, their inferiority can readily be seen. Fourth, function has two aspects: first, breadth in taking in beings, since the mokṣa precepts reach all seven assemblies; second, superiority in sustaining, since they carry forward the three vehicles, Three Jewels, and three paths. Within 'sustaining,' all three items are strung together by this one word 'carrying forward': the first is the Dharma thereby carried, the second the very ground on which it rests, the third the fruit thereby accomplished. Fifth, on person: non-Buddhist practitioners have no undefiled precepts, hence only the meditative precepts are mentioned for them, since they too can attain the formless concentrations." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 15.]

Part Five: Whether One May Re-Take What Has Already Been Received

The Zichi Commentary says: "Within 're-taking': the intent is to have the practitioner examine carefully what he has already received, and seek to further increase and strengthen it."

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "According to the Sarvāstivāda school, precept is neither generated again nor received again — it remains fixed, according to what was originally received, permanently." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "As for 'not generated again': that school holds there is no such thing as gaining the mokṣa precepts a second time. If one receives the Five Precepts with a lower-grade mind, and afterward receives the Ten Precepts with a middle- or upper-grade mind, the previously obtained Five Precepts gain no further increase — it is only the latter five that are newly gained. As for 'not received again': that school holds that a single reception is already fixed; since the essence is not generated again, receiving again brings no increase, and so re-reception is not established as meaningful."

The Procedural Commentary also says: "The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: someone asks, can the prātimokṣa be generated again? The answer: within a single day one may receive all seven kinds of wholesome discipline in succession; wherever one reaches the path, one gains that discipline afresh, and yet what was originally gained is not lost — the name given is simply that of whichever is superior. The seven kinds of wholesome discipline are: the Five Precepts, the Eight Precepts, the Ten Precepts, full ordination, meditative precepts, concentration precepts, and path-concurrent precepts." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The Tattvasiddhi school allows re-reception and holds that what was originally obtained is not lost, because the earlier essence is simply increased into the later essence. 'The name given is that of whichever is superior' means the name is taken from the later attainment, the earlier name simply falling away. The Tattvasiddhi treatise separates meditative and concentration precepts into two, distinguishing form-realm from formless-realm; the Multi school combines them into one, since both are equally 'non-moving karma.' Question: how are 'generated again' and 'received again' to be distinguished? Answer: 'generated again' concerns multiple different precepts, while 'received again' concerns a single precept. If so, the treatise explains 're-generation' — where, then, does it show 're-reception'? Answer: because the essence is generated again, re-reception is thereby also obtained, since that re-reception is itself generated from the very same essence." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 15.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "Now, precept is the very vessel that ferries one across the sea of suffering, the starting thread from which ten thousand wholesome deeds unfold, honored by the sages and worthies of all three vehicles, and handed down by the patriarchs of every generation. Yet those who receive it differ in the clarity or dimness of their minds, and in the depth or shallowness of their learning, and cannot all be measured by a single standard. Hence there are those who receive it for the first time, and those who increase it by receiving again. The Vinaya, in explaining the generation of the aspiration, sets out three grades. First, one who aims only at freedom from suffering, seeking solely his own benefit — this is called the lower grade, the mind of the two lesser vehicles. Second, one who seeks understanding for the sake of other beings, benefiting both self and others together — this is called the middle grade, the mind of the minor bodhisattva. Third, one who forgets himself entirely in benefiting beings, cultivating merit and wisdom together, penetrating to the fundamental nature, and seeking the Buddha's own bodhi — this is called the upper grade, the mind of the great bodhisattva. Knowing full well that at the first reception one generally gives rise only to the middle or lower grade, the Buddha permits one to increase it by receiving again, turning it into the upper grade. This is what is meant by 'increasing the precept.'" [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, appendix.]

[The above concludes the first chapter, A General Account of the Precept-Dharma, within the Gate of the Precept-Dharma.]

Chapter Two: Ordination Liturgies

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "From ancient times, those who compiled works of Dharma mostly cut away the laity, and commentaries were accordingly written asserting: 'The Vinaya legislates for the inner assembly; it does not extend to those outside.' But relying now on the actual text of the Vinaya, this work takes in the pure-faithed laity as well, without exception. Restraining the three types of karma serves as a stairway toward the path — by rights, one must have thorough command of what is right and wrong here, what passes and what is blocked, what succeeds and what fails. How is this known? In instituting the teaching, the Tathāgata made it like empty space: whichever single aspect of it is set up, it takes in the whole of cultivation without remainder. The Five Precepts are a law extended to the laity, and yet their essence is the very rule that runs through the whole monastic path — keeping and violating support one another, and disqualifying impediments are screened for on equal footing." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Like empty space' — empty space carries two senses: one, being without bound, illustrates its universality; the other, being all-containing, illustrates how it takes in every capacity. The passage takes up the Five Precepts to show this same sense of one aspect broadly taking in the rest. 'A law extended to the laity' is spoken in terms of outward form, which is limited; 'the rule that runs through the monastic path' is spoken in terms of the underlying essence, which is universal. Only in the matter of sexual misconduct does the precept divide into licit and illicit for the laity, and the lay precepts do not carry the monastic's full graded categories of offense — yet when it comes to the gravity of major and minor offenses, and the progression of preparatory action toward its fruit, the sense is exactly the same; hence 'keeping and violating support one another.' The Karman Commentary, citing the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts, gives the full screening-questions for disqualifying impediments, identical to those used for the monastic path; hence 'screened for on equal footing.'"

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Sarvāstivāda tradition says: the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, and on up to the prātimokṣa precepts were all opened up and established because a Buddha appeared in the world. Now, the wheel-turning king and the Brahmā king likewise proclaim worldly teachings that bring benefit to beings — hence the ten wholesome courses of action and the four immeasurable minds have existed since the very start of the kalpa. Yet these are not able to bring about pure ascent, or transcend the worldly sphere. The Dharma-king, appearing in the world, does not teach for the sake of the world: his aim is specifically to cut off affliction and depart far beyond the bondage of the three realms. Hence he sets out wholesome precept, causing beings to rely on it and fully cultivate concentration, wisdom, and the rest — this alone forms the true root from which liberation arises. Such is the intent here." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The opening names the source from which refuge and precept arise; 'prātimokṣa precepts' here means full ordination. What follows compares their relative merits, first showing the inferiority of worldly teaching: the wheel-turning king is lord of humankind and transforms people by the ten wholesome courses of action; the Brahmā king is lord of the heavens and transforms people by the four immeasurables — loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. These do not wait on a Buddha's appearance, and so have existed since the very start of the kalpa; yet their fruit lies only within the human and heavenly realms, and so they do not transcend worldly teaching. What follows next shows the superiority of refuge and precept: there is nothing in them that is not directed toward cutting off the accumulation of affliction, escaping suffering, cultivating the path, and realizing cessation." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[Ordination Liturgies divides into three sections: first, the Three Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views; second, the Five Precepts; third, the Eight Precepts.]

Section One: The Three Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Mātṛkā treatise says: there are five kinds of Three Refuges — first, the refuge that turns one from wrong views; second, the Five Precepts; third, the Eight Precepts; fourth, the Ten Precepts; fifth, full ordination. Only the refuge belonging to full ordination is not treated here; the other four are all present in this work." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The Mātṛkā treatise's Three Refuges reach through and comprehend all five levels of Dharma — this alone is enough to show how excellent their merit is." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[The Three Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views divides into six parts: first, The Intent of Taking Refuge; second, Showing Its Marks; third, Its Benefit; fourth, Repentance; fifth, The Formula; sixth, Sundry Clarifications.]

Part One: The Intent of Taking Refuge

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Vibhāṣā says: the Three Jewels are what is taken refuge in. What is taken refuge in carries the meaning of rescue and protection — like a man who has incurred a crime against his king, and flees to another country seeking rescue and protection; that other king decrees, 'If you seek freedom from fear and have thrown yourself upon me, then do not step outside my borders, and do not violate my law — I will certainly protect and rescue you.' It is just the same with sentient beings: bound and belonging to Māra, they carry the fault of birth-and-death; once they take refuge in the Three Jewels, Māra can do nothing further to them." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The first line shows the object of refuge. What follows displays its meaning. What follows that offers the analogy. What follows 'sentient beings' applies it to the Dharma: the first three lines correspond to 'incurred a crime against his king,' and the latter two correspond to 'fled to another country.' Māra is of four kinds: the heavenly Māra, the Māra of the five aggregates, the Māra of affliction, and the Māra of death. Until one takes refuge in the Three Jewels, one remains bound and belonging to all four." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Two: Showing Its Marks

The Commentary on the Precept-Text (Jieshu) says: "There are four kinds of Three Jewels. First, the noumenal-essence Three Jewels: the Five Aggregates of the Dharma-body serve as the Buddha-jewel; the unconditioned principle of cessation serves as the Dharma-jewel; the merit of the śrāvaka in training and beyond training serves as the Saṅgha-jewel. Second, the transformation-marks Three Jewels: Śākyamuni, sovereign of the three-thousandfold world through the path, serves as the Buddha-jewel; the teaching of the truths, expounded and spread abroad, serves as the Dharma-jewel; Kauṇḍinya and the other four of the first five disciples serve as the Saṅgha-jewel. Third, the sustaining Three Jewels: images and stūpas serve as the Buddha-jewel; what is handed down on paper and silk serves as the Dharma-jewel; the precept-Dharma and its outward marks serve as the Saṅgha-jewel. Fourth, the single-essence Three Jewels: as is discussed in the ordinary way — divided into three aspects purely in terms of the essence of mind, as when the Nirvāṇa Sūtra speaks of the Three Jewels sharing one and the same nature, and so on." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "Other schools all lack the noumenal-essence Three Jewels — this fourfold distinction is unique to the present Jieshu. First, on the noumenal-essence: of the Five Aggregates, precept, concentration, and wisdom take their name from the cause, while liberation and the knowledge-and-vision of liberation take their name from the fruit; 'the principle of cessation' is the truth of cessation among the Four Noble Truths, that is, Nirvāṇa; 'in training and beyond training' means, from the first fruit onward, those who together see the real truth are called the Saṅgha united in principle — note that this noumenal-essence is itself of a single essence throughout, the distinction being made only in how Buddha and Saṅgha each realize that principle. Within the transformation-marks: 'three-thousandfold' is the realm of beings transformed; 'the teaching of the truths' is the Four Noble Truths — though the Dharma-gates are many, this speaks of them by their foremost representative, and the Four Noble Truths comprehend cause and fruit for ordinary being and sage alike, however broadly or narrowly the Great and Lesser Vehicles frame it. Within the sustaining Three Jewels, the precept-Dharma is the very substance of the Saṅgha, and its outward marks are the shaving of the head and dyeing of the robe. 'As is discussed in the ordinary way,' within the single-essence, refers to the position taken generally across the sutras and treatises." The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "The deluded thought of sentient beings, and the heaven-given, spontaneously perfect nature originally possessed within it — this is the single-essence Three Jewels. The fruit-virtues of every Buddha, pure and undefiled — this is the noumenal-essence Three Jewels. Appearing at the right moment for beings to see, opening and instructing the multitude — this is the transformation-marks Three Jewels. Bequeathing abundance to later ages, flowing on without end — this is the sustaining Three Jewels." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, appendix.]

The Jieshu continues: "These Three Jewels benefit the world: in their near effect they pull beings out of the three realms of existence, and in their far effect they cleanse the two kinds of birth-and-death. Rare in the world, and alone able to reach all the way through — hence they are worthy of honor, and are called 'jewels.' The Ratnagotravibhāga (Treatise on the Jewel-Lineage) accordingly uses the analogy of a jewel to distinguish six meanings. First, the meaning of rarity: a worldly jewel is what the poor and destitute lack; the Three Jewels are what those of scant merit fail to encounter. Second, the meaning of freedom from stain: a worldly jewel's substance is free of blemish; the Three Jewels are entirely free of every defiling stain. Third, the meaning of power: a worldly jewel dispels poverty and removes poison; the Three Jewels grant the six supernormal powers, inconceivable in their reach. Fourth, the meaning of adornment: a worldly jewel adorns the body and makes it beautiful; the Three Jewels are able to adorn the Dharma-body. Fifth, the meaning of supremacy: a worldly jewel is supreme among ordinary things; the Three Jewels, vast beyond measure, are unsurpassed. Sixth, the meaning of changelessness: a worldly jewel, refined and polished, does not alter; the Three Jewels are unmoved by the eight worldly winds." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "The opening briefly explains the sense: the first three lines show the benefit; the words 'near' and 'far' necessarily correspond to cause and fruit. 'The two kinds of birth-and-death': the first is birth-and-death in fixed spans, ended in common by all three vehicles; the second is birth-and-death by transformation, brought to a final end by the Buddha alone. The line following 'rare' draws the conclusion: 'rare in the world' means the world lacks it; 'alone able to reach all the way through' means it transcends every mode of existence. What follows next matches the four kinds of Three Jewels against these six meanings. The first meaning applies across all four: without faith one fails to encounter the sustaining Three Jewels; without the right conditions one fails to encounter the transformation-marks Three Jewels — the case of the 'three hundred million' at Śrāvastī [who never once perceived the Buddha though he dwelt among them] illustrates this; the noumenal-essence is confined to sages, and the ordinary and the foolish never encounter it; the single-essence is not encountered even by the two lesser vehicles in its fullness. Within the second meaning, this applies only to the noumenal-essence jewel: the Homage Liturgy says the substance of the sustaining Three Jewels is itself conditioned and fully subject to outflow and defilement, and that the substance of the transformation-marks is impermanent, shifted by the four marks of arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing, its extinction now more than a thousand years past, so one can only look back on it from a distance and use this to increase one's own reverence; and as for the single-essence, taken from the standpoint of delusion, it too follows along with defilement — hence none of these three other kinds carries this second meaning, only the noumenal-essence does. Within the third analogy, the six supernormal powers belong to persons, and so correspond only to the transformation-marks jewel; 'poison' means suffering and affliction. The fourth meaning applies across all four: the sustaining and transformation-marks Three Jewels are able to give rise to faith and reverence, while the noumenal-essence and single-essence can be cultivated and realized — all of these count as 'adorning the body.' The fifth meaning likewise applies across all four, and the remaining three are easy to understand: the sustaining Buddha-Dharma, though made of worldly materials, is never without expressing the Dharma-body, its function without limit; the Homage Liturgy says gold, wood, stone, and clay are, in their substance, insentient, yet because an image has been fashioned from them, a person who honors or defaces it earns karmic merit or fault accordingly, hence one knows this jewel deserves the name 'unsurpassed' — the Dharma-jewel follows the same principle, and a monastic with shaved head and dyed robe is a field of merit for the world, foremost among gods and humans, such that even one who breaks the precepts and acts wrongly still surpasses an ordinary outsider in this respect, how much more, then, one who genuinely upholds and practices it. The sixth meaning is confined to the noumenal-essence jewel alone: the Homage Liturgy says these Three Jewels abide constantly in the world, never overridden or belittled by worldly dharmas; though the single-essence too is constant, from the standpoint of delusion it still shifts and changes along with conditions, and the remaining two are impermanent, so are not under discussion here. As for 'the eight dharmas': the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says decline, gain, disgrace, honor, praise, censure, suffering, and pleasure — four adverse and four favorable — are able to stir the feelings of beings, and are together called the eight winds; the noumenal-essence jewel, in both its person and Dharma aspects, belongs entirely to the undefiled, transmundane path of the sage, and so is not moved by these eight dharmas."

The Jieshu also says: "Speaking of the four kinds of jewel, the noumenal-essence is supreme. Because it alone abides constantly, it is what the world truly takes refuge in; the other three are established only provisionally, their substance being conditioned dharmas." The Xingzong Commentary glosses: "That the noumenal-essence jewel is supreme is because principle reaches through both Great and Lesser Vehicles alike: the emptiness of the person realized in the Hīnayāna's own principle, and the pure, fundamental mind of true suchness in the Mahayana's own principle — here one must reckon superiority and inferiority specifically from the Mahayana standpoint. If so, how does this differ from the single-essence jewel? Answer: the single-essence is spoken of strictly from the standpoint of delusion, concerning the ordinary being alone; the noumenal-essence is spoken of from the standpoint of realization, concerning the sage alone — hence the two are kept distinct. This is why the noumenal-essence jewel alone surpasses the other three." [The above is all found in the Xingzong Commentary on the Jieshu, fascicle 2.]

The Homage Liturgy (Guijing Yi) says: "As for taking refuge in the noumenal-essence Three Jewels in their aspect of dependent principle: 'principle' here means the ultimate principle itself, the heaven-given nature that abides constantly, which is none other than the very essence of mind. Spoken of from the standpoint of defilement, it is without a discernible beginning yet does have an end — bound only by the net of delusion, unable to break free of its own obstruction. Now, by means of the three trainings, this entanglement is cut through and cleared away; once affliction and karma have been overturned, the nature of mind shines forth in its own light, pure from beginning to end — a purity that is, in truth, without beginning and without end at all. Established by means of the Dharma, and divided into aspects according to its objects, this aspect is named the Five Aggregates of the Dharma-body: precept, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge-and-vision of liberation. The first three trainings take their name from the cause: because precept protects and assists, the fruit becomes the Dharma-body, hence called 'the precept-aggregate'; concentration and wisdom may be understood by the same pattern. The latter two take their name, in sequence, from the fruit: 'the liberation-aggregate' is so called because, through wisdom overcoming affliction, the place where affliction is no more is named liberation; 'the aggregate of the knowledge-and-vision of liberation' is so called because, having broken free of entanglement and shattered obstruction, one turns the light of contemplation back upon the observing mind itself. Only the sages of the three vehicles within the Buddha-Dharma possess these Five Aggregates in full, and are thereby able to serve as the great refuge for beings of all six destinies. Hence a treatise says: taking refuge in the Buddha means taking refuge in the Five Aggregates of the Dharma-body of all-knowing wisdom; taking refuge in the Dharma means taking refuge in the truth of cessation, Nirvāṇa itself; taking refuge in the Saṅgha means taking refuge in the merit of every worthy and sage, in training and beyond training, at the point where both their own and others' afflictions are utterly exhausted — that is, the very point where self and other alike have nothing further of affliction left to extinguish, hence called 'the point of exhaustion.' Just as a worldly treasure is prized by the living, so these Three Jewels are looked to with reverence by every being, by the three vehicles and the seven assemblies alike — hence they are called 'the true refuge.'" The Homage Liturgy continues: "This shows that the noumenal-essence jewel is the very object refuge itself is grounded in — hence it is explained here once more in careful detail, so the mind may have something firm to rest upon." [The above is all found in the Homage Liturgy for the Buddhist Community, fascicle 2.]

Part Three: Its Benefit

The Homage Liturgy (Guijing Yi) says: "A sutra says: if a person once hears the two words 'eternally abiding,' that person will not fall into the evil destinies in any future birth. Why is this so? Because he thereby knows that the fundamental nature of the Dharma and the Buddha is eternal. Hearing and understanding it just once already perfumes the fundamental consciousness-mind; once the karmic seed is formed, pure faith is never lost again. How much more, then, when one is actually able to establish the vow of taking refuge, and honor the Three Jewels as one's own teacher and model — this will certainly remain pure and excellent across kalpa after kalpa, with no possibility, in principle, of ever being submerged. As the sutra says, there was one who, having received the Three Refuges, will be liberated from birth-and-death at the very first assembly of Maitreya. This is exactly the good ford by which one leaves the sea of suffering, the very first step by which one enters the ranks of the Buddha-Dharma. Yet because offenses are many and evil grave, those who take it lightly and treat it with contempt, though they meet the occasion of receiving refuge, still lose it again as conditions shift. This is exactly why the wise person, at the moment of first receiving refuge, fixes the mind single-mindedly on this very act — this alone is what deserves the name 'taking refuge.' It is this that moves good spirits to follow along and offer their protection." [Cited from the Homage Liturgy for the Buddhist Community, fascicle 2.]

The Homage Liturgy continues: "Every discerning person, monastic or lay, must take refuge in the Three Jewels and seek their protection — the merit thereby obtained is without limit. The seven assemblies, reckoned by precept, have already received refuge beforehand; this is no obstacle to receiving it again, and receiving again generates the non-act precept afresh. Since this holds for both wholesome and unwholesome action alike, it holds equally for precept. If one has not yet received precepts, one may still simply receive the Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views alone — at any of the six periods of the day, taking refuge whenever one wishes, openly professing refuge in the Three Jewels, vowing for oneself never to turn back."

The Homage Liturgy also says: "As the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts says: if a person receives the three self-professed refuges, the resulting fruit cannot be exhausted — like the four great treasure-vaults, which the entire population of a kingdom could not empty even carrying from them for seven years straight; the merit of one who receives the Three Refuges surpasses even that, beyond all reckoning. The Sūtra on Comparing Merits also says: were the whole of the four great continents filled with beings who had attained the fruit of the two lesser vehicles, and someone were to make offerings to every one of them for a whole lifetime, even to the point of raising stūpas for them — this would still not equal a man or woman simply saying, 'I, so-and-so, take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha.' The merit thereby obtained is inconceivable, because among all forms of merit, the Three Jewels alone are supreme. The Saṃyukta Āgama also says: whoever associated with Sudatta was made to receive the Three Refuges, and in the end was born in the heavens. Those who were pregnant had the unborn child receive the three self-professed refuges on its behalf; once born, the child received them again; and once old enough to understand, was taught the Three Refuges once more. Even if a servant or a traveler in one's household became pregnant and bore a child, the same was taught to them. When purchasing a servant, one first had them receive the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts, and only then completed the purchase; if this could not be done, the purchase was not made. Even in matters of borrowing, lending, and charging interest, one required the other party to first receive the Three Refuges before proceeding. Whoever donated an offering to the Three Jewels, having heard it from the World-Honored One himself, invoked his name and made a vow, and thereby attained birth in the heavens. The Buddha said: 'Excellent — the Tathāgata possesses unsurpassed knowledge and vision, and knows precisely the skillful means by which all may attain birth in the heavens.'" [The above is all found in the Homage Liturgy for the Buddhist Community, fascicle 9.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra says: a pregnant woman, fearing for the safety of her unborn child, should first receive the Three Refuges; once she has done so, no harm will come to the child, and once it is born, it will be complete in body and mind, and protected by good spirits." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

Part Four: Repentance

The Procedural Commentary says: "Because one has believed in wrong views for so long, one has heedlessly committed acts against the Dharma. Now, taking refuge for the first time, one must certainly turn away from wrongful karma. The Āgamas and other sutras all direct that repentance come first. The Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: 'confess openly every evil deed, disclosing in full every evil committed since the boundary of birth-and-death, all the way to the point where there is no further point to reach.' If one wishes to set out a formal repentance, it may be recited at whatever time suits, and this may likewise be applied in common to the refuges." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The opening explains the intent: anyone who has not yet taken refuge in the Three Jewels is, by that very fact, called one who 'believes in wrong views'; anyone who follows along with birth-and-death is, by that fact, said to carry out 'wrongful karma.' What follows cites textual support. In the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, 'the boundary of birth-and-death' means beginningless time; 'the point where there is no further point to reach' means the utmost future limit — that is, attaining Buddhahood and realizing great Nirvāṇa is itself called 'the point where there is no further point,' meaning that once this utmost limit is reached, there is nowhere further to go. What follows points to the actual method: 'at whatever time suits' means each person recites it in his own way; 'applied in common' means, as in the various sutras, simply repenting the ten unwholesome deeds across the three times, and the like." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

Part Five: The Formula

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "The Samantapāsādikā says: the formula must in every case be transmitted from a preceptor, with the words and their sounds matching exactly. If the words are not pronounced, or are incomplete, or one's own name is not stated, or the preceptor does not understand — in any of these cases it does not succeed." [Cited from the Karman Adapted to Circumstance, fascicle 2.]

[Every citation of the Karman Commentary that follows below is likewise from this source and will not be separately noted again. When receiving the Five Precepts or Eight Precepts, the same principle applies; the text is not repeated there for brevity.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: kneeling on one knee with palms joined, before a bhikṣu, any of the five assemblies may perform this — one should be taught to say: 'I, so-and-so, for the whole of this bodily life, take refuge in the Buddha, take refuge in the Dharma, take refuge in the Saṅgha.' (Said three times.) This alone generates the wholesome dharma. One then closes with: 'I, so-and-so, for the whole of this bodily life, have taken refuge in the Buddha, have taken refuge in the Dharma, have taken refuge in the Saṅgha.' (Said three times, as the closing.)" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "First comes the proper posture, second the facing of the object, third the formula itself. 'So-and-so' means stating one's own name; 'for the whole of this bodily life' states the term one intends; 'taking refuge in the Three Jewels' names what one throws oneself upon. Saying 'generates the wholesome dharma' makes clear this is not yet the same as receiving precept. The latter threefold closing repeats the charge once more, so it will not be forgotten." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "The Vibhāṣā says: as for the Three Refuges, what constitutes their essence? Some treatises hold: the nature of expressed and unexpressed action. This is spoken from the standpoint of the karmic action that the expressed action gives rise to, explaining its nature in terms of the essence itself. If performed with a sincere, weighty mind, there is unexpressed action as well as expressed action. 'Unexpressed action' means that, once the karmic substance is generated, it continues to manifest on its own, without needing further conditions to bring it about, and without requiring any further teaching or showing before it can function — its very essence, operating spontaneously, is able to answer to future lives; hence it is called 'unexpressed.' Sutras and treatises today mostly call this 'the non-act precept,' the sense being exactly the same." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "In the question cited, 'nature' means precisely 'essence.' The explanation has three parts. First, it fixes the essence directly: 'the nature of expressed and unexpressed action' — that treatise goes on to say, at the moment of receiving the Three Refuges, kneeling and joining the palms is the bodily expressed action, and speaking the words of the threefold refuge is the verbal expressed action; if done with a sincere, weighty mind, there is bodily-and-verbal expressed action together with unexpressed action. Expressed action is what is able to generate; because expressed action generates unexpressed action, the treatise speaks of 'the karmic action the expressed action gives rise to' — that is, it takes unexpressed action as the essence itself. 'Unexpressed action,' next, explains the name: 'generated' means the first moment of thought; 'continues to manifest' means the second moment onward. 'Teaching' here is like 'directing' — meaning it is not that some further teaching directs it to continue, but that it spontaneously and naturally answers to its cause and produces its effect on its own. What follows 'today' reconciles the terms — it refers to the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts, the Treatise on Establishing Reality, the *Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya, and the like."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures continues: "At the moment of performing the formula, one should know that, once the threefold recitation is complete, the non-act precept is thereupon generated — hence neither the one giving nor the one receiving remains in the dark as to the accomplishing of this karmic act." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Once the threefold recitation is complete' — this, up through the very first moment of thought, is together called 'the act.' 'The non-act precept is thereupon generated' refers specifically to the second moment of thought onward, extending all the way to the end of this bodily life. The one who confers it and the one who receives it both know exactly the point at which the karmic act is accomplished — hence 'not in the dark.'" [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[The two passages of the Commentary above, together with their glosses, show the karmic substance generated by the Three Refuges. This is difficult for a beginner to grasp, and the reader would do well to consult the Gate of the Precept-Essence alongside it.]

Part Six: Sundry Clarifications

The Karman Commentary says: "This threefold refuge alone confers only the refuge, not yet any precept-Dharma. Hence the Mātṛkā treatise says: beneath the Three Refuges, if something further is added, one obtains both refuge and precept; if nothing is added, one obtains refuge only, without precept."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Vibhāṣā asks: if one names the Buddha and the Dharma but does not name the Saṅgha — or, in general, omits any one of the three — does the refuge still succeed? Answer: it does not succeed in being received." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Or, in general, omits any one of the three' means, for instance, naming only the Buddha without the Dharma, or naming the Dharma and Saṅgha without the Buddha."

The Commentary continues: "Another question: may one receive one of the three refuges from each of three different preceptors? Answer: one may not." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The answer that one may not receive from three separate preceptors, one refuge from each, is because both the person and the Dharma would then differ each time."

The Commentary continues: "Another question: may one receive it for a term of one year, or half a year? Answer: yes — one may receive the Three Refuges for however many days one wishes." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "In that school, the Five and Eight Precepts are confined to a fixed term, while the Three Refuges may be received for any term at all."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "Speaking of all five destinies, every being may receive it — excepting only those whose karmic retribution is too severe; all the rest, including those in the mountain-dwelling, open-wilderness, or lightly-bound hells, can successfully take the Three Refuges. Excepted also are those incapable of understanding." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Since asuras are distributed throughout all five destinies, the text speaks simply of 'the five destinies.' 'Excepting those whose karmic retribution is too severe' specifically excludes the lower destinies in their worst extremity, since the human and heavenly destinies can of course receive it; the text names the lightly-bound hells as its example, and hungry ghosts and animals are to be understood by the same principle. 'Excepted also are those incapable of understanding' excludes across all five destinies generally, since even a human or a god who cannot understand likewise fails to receive it successfully." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Section Two: The Five Precepts
This section divides into seven parts: first, Its Surpassing Merit; second, Screening Candidates; third, Preparing in Advance to Generate the Precept; fourth, Praising Its Merit and Asking the Portion; fifth, Repentance and Purification; sixth, Distinctions in the Formula; seventh, Sundry Clarifications.

Part One: Its Surpassing Merit

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "A sutra says: there are good men and women who make offerings of the four requisites to every being throughout the four continents, sustained for a full hundred years — and yet this does not equal the merit of keeping precept for a single day and night. This is because the precept-Dharma, by its very nature, extends to both sentient and insentient objects alike." The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) glosses: "The moment one first receives precept, one has already carried out all three kinds of giving across the entire realm of sentient beings — hence a giving limited by wealth cannot compare to it. Vowing for life not to steal is already giving guidance to every sentient being throughout the Dharma-realm; saying one will not kill is already giving fearlessness to every sentient being throughout the Dharma-realm. Using the precept-Dharma in this way to shape both one's own conduct and that of others is exactly what is meant by giving of the Dharma reaching throughout the realm of sentient beings. Wealth, by contrast, is confined and narrow — the way it is gathered and dispersed opens the very gateway to affliction, delusion, and harm; the precept-Dharma is pure and clear, and is therefore free of this danger entirely." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "The opening gives an overall showing: at the moment of first receiving, one establishes the vow to cut off evil across the entire realm of beings. Giving of wealth, giving of the Dharma, and giving of fearlessness together make the three kinds of giving. What follows lists them separately: not stealing or wrongfully taking is itself giving of wealth; causing no harm or disturbance is giving of fearlessness; and carrying out both of these oneself, so that others take them as a model, is itself giving of the Dharma. Giving of wealth relieves another's poverty and distress, and giving of fearlessness brings others peace — these two belong to loving-kindness and compassion; giving of the Dharma brings the other to understanding, and belongs to wisdom. With all three present at once, its superiority can readily be seen. What follows gives an overall conclusion: the opening line shows that giving of wealth is confined and narrow, for two reasons — first, it does not carry all three kinds of giving at once, and second, it does not extend across the whole realm of beings. Gathering wealth cannot avoid greedy pursuit, and dispersing it cannot avoid picking and choosing; one who receives it feels joy, one who does not feels resentment — this is capable of opening the gateway to affliction, and so cannot compare to precept."

The Karman Commentary continues: "A treatise says: it is because of precept that giving becomes pure." The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: if one gives wealth without keeping precept, one's giving is full of greed and impurity — seeking gain by means of gain, wrongful seeking, excessive seeking — and this causes one, in a future life, to receive an impure fruit, such as being reborn as a cow, sheep, pig, or dog, clothed and fed only coarsely. But if one keeps precept, one has already cut off wrongful seeking, and this pure conduct extends all the way, without break, to the fruit of Buddhahood itself." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The first part shows the loss involved in giving while breaking precept; what follows shows the benefit of giving while keeping precept." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Two: Screening Candidates, Right and Wrong

The Karman Commentary says: "Before ordination, one must fully question the candidate on the disqualifying impediments. Hence the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts says: 'Have you stolen property currently belonging to the Saṅgha? Have you engaged in sexual misconduct with one of your six close relatives, or with a bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī? Did you abandon your father, mother, or teacher while they were ill? Have you killed a being who had generated the bodhi-mind?'" The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The four items in this passage are the very gravest among grave nature-offenses; if a layperson has committed one of these, it obstructs the precept from being generated at all. Great false speech is not listed here, since it is not a fault the laity commit in this specific sense. 'Abandoning the ill' can be subsumed under killing."

[If any of these disqualifying impediments applies, one may still receive the Five Precepts after having repented and become pure. Only one who has defiled a bhikṣuṇī, or been the one who defiled a bhikṣu, is thereafter never permitted to leave the household life.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "As in the Treatise on Establishing Reality: the five heinous offenses, stealing the status of a monastic, and defiling a bhikṣuṇī — the Vinaya does not permit these. Such a person is defiled by evil in a way that obstructs the sage's path, and so is not permitted to leave the household life. Yet as a layperson, he may still obtain a wholesome discipline, and is not thereby barred from cultivating giving, loving-kindness, and other wholesome practices — he may still hold a worldly precept. Judged by this standard, if such a fault is present, receiving full ordination does not accord with the text; only once it has been thoroughly repented away do the two teachings no longer conflict. Even so, the karma is grave and the obstruction deep, and full ordination is still not generated for such a person." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The citation has two parts: the first shows the intent behind prohibiting full ordination; what follows shows how the door remains open in lay life, so as to draw such a person in and keep them dwelling on the wholesome path. 'Giving, loving-kindness, and other wholesome practices' are worldly merit. What follows settles the matter: although the Five Precepts remain open to such a person, this is necessarily spoken in terms of having repented and become pure — if the fault has not been repented, reception is barred, as the disqualifying impediments above describe. 'The two teachings' means worldly teaching and the Buddha's own legislation. Fearing that some might suppose repenting and becoming pure would then make full ordination permissible after all, the Commentary explains, in terms of the gravity of the offense, why the door remains open only to the lesser teaching." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[The five heinous offenses, stealing the status of a monastic, and defiling a bhikṣuṇī or bhikṣu are all comprehended among the thirteen disqualifying difficulties; anyone guilty of these is thereafter never permitted to leave the household life. "Stealing the status of a monastic" means someone not yet fully ordained who sneaks into the Saṅgha to share in its material support, or who secretly listens in on a formal karman procedure being performed — this constitutes a disqualifying impediment to ordination. If a layperson secretly reads the monastic precept-texts, or merely overhears the Saṅgha reciting the precepts, though this is not itself a disqualifying impediment, it is likewise something the Buddha's own legislation does not permit. As the Jieshu says: this is legislated for those below, still without understanding, who easily develop a habit of contempt — by ruling that their eyes and ears should have no access to it, one causes the Dharma and its holders to be honored, and gives rise to reverence for them. This is done specifically out of fear of provoking a careless, contemptuous attitude, and so it is prohibited — a matter distinct from "stealing the status of a monastic."]

Part Three: Preparing in Advance to Generate the Precept

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "When one is about to receive precept, one must first be told the breadth of the objects involved, so that the recipient's resolve reaches far and his grasp of the object is entirely clear." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The first four precepts are all generated with respect to sentient objects throughout; the alcohol precept alone is generated with respect to insentient objects as well. This is exactly the same as full ordination, and instruction must be given beforehand. 'Resolve reaches far' means establishing a vow with a definite term; 'grasp of the object' means fully recognizing the scope of the objects involved." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[Among the first four precepts, the precepts against stealing and lying also involve insentient objects; this is explained below, in the section on the scope of objects that generate the precept.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Sarvāstivāda tradition says: whenever precept is received, one must first be given teaching to lead and open the understanding, so that a mind of compassion is aroused toward every single object — only then is an ever-increasing precept obtained." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "This citation shows the need for the preceptor's own instruction. 'Opening the understanding' — understanding is precisely wisdom, and the precept-Dharma is so deep and broad that only wisdom can master it. 'Every single object' means sentient and insentient alike. Recognizing the object and generating the mind is the very essence of receiving — this cannot be handled carelessly. Students, reaching this point, must dig deeply into it. All too often one sees people who merely recite the words, and both object and mind end up falling short — how can one not feel some dread at this?" [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 8.]

[Preparing in Advance to Generate the Precept divides into four components: first, What Is Received as the Dharma; second, The Scope of the Object-Field That Generates the Precept; third, Generating the Aspiration in Accordance with the Object-Field; fourth, Applying the Mind in Reverent Reception.]

Component One: What Is Received as the Dharma

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "Setting the mind on receiving precept, one must recognize just what this Dharma is: it is what a Buddha, appearing in the world, established as the precept-Dharma, restraining and guarding body and speech, and taming conduct of mind. Because the Buddhas of the ten directions, and the worthies and sages of all three vehicles, cultivate this same Dharma in common, it is called sage-Dharma. Now, generating the mind and vowing to take up this Dharma, one receives it by performing the formula. When causes and conditions come together in union, mind and object merge as one, and the non-act precept is thereby generated and received into the mind — this is called the precept-essence. One should therefore know that, at the moment of receiving, one must apply the mind with the utmost care — this is the great matter of an entire lifetime, a matter that can hardly be treated lightly." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 3.]

Component Two: The Scope of the Object-Field That Generates the Precept

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "The object relied upon is nothing less than every dharma of every sentient being's dependent and direct retribution throughout the Dharma-realm. Precept is legislated in relation to its object, and the essence is generated from that object; since the object is immeasurable, the essence too is boundless." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 2.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian continues: "Though the objects relied upon are many, they do not go beyond two kinds. First, sentient objects: the Buddhas of the ten directions and three times, as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, together with the bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, and śrāvakas; the gods, humans, asuras, hell-beings, hungry ghosts, and animals; down to the tiniest crawling things — mosquitoes, gnats, fleas, and lice — and even the intermediate-state beings outside the six destinies. All such beings, spread throughout the ten directions and reaching across the three times, immeasurable, boundless, beyond all counting, generate precept when one is ordained. Second, insentient objects: every mote of dust in every land throughout the world, every mountain, river, and expanse of earth, every tree, plant, flower, and fruit, down to a single flower, a single leaf, a single object, a single speck of dust — each and every one, in its full number, likewise generates precept. This extends even to the two truths of emptiness and existence, the principle of cessation and Nirvāṇa, the sacred teachings and their scriptural scrolls, and every image and stūpa; and to earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness, and the like." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 3. This passage follows the Procedural Commentary; the Zichi Commentary's gloss on it is cited below.] The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The four clauses beginning with 'emptiness and existence' specifically name the two remaining jewels: since sentient and insentient objects between them already take in every object without remainder, this special showing is given only to forestall any confused doubt. The first line shows the transformation-marks: the Buddha's teaching of the Four Noble Truths takes in cause and fruit for the worldly and transmundane, ordinary being and sage alike; suffering, its origin, and the path are together named 'the truth of existence,' while cessation is 'the truth of emptiness' — also called the two truths of the ultimate and the conventional. The next name, 'principle,' means the noumenal-essence Dharma, distinct from the 'truth of emptiness' just named, since that belongs to the teaching-aspect. The next two lines name the two remaining sustaining jewels. Question: since these are all insentient, why name them separately at all? Answer: for fear that one might suppose sacred objects do not generate precept. Question: how do these two Dharma-aspects generate precept at all? Answer: the Jieshu says both carry the sense of being subject to damage and slander, as in the case of Devadatta destroying the Dharma. Question: why does the transformation-marks aspect not specify the Buddha, and the sustaining aspect not mention the Saṅgha? Answer: both are already taken in under sentient objects; within the noumenal-essence, Buddha and Saṅgha share no separate substance in any case. What follows names the six elements separately: the first five are insentient, the last is sentient. Wind, space, and consciousness are objects whose marks are hard to see, hence they are shown separately here, as explained under the precept against stealing. One must further understand that this varies from precept to precept: for sexual misconduct and killing, the object is sentient alone; for alcohol, it is insentient alone; for stealing and lying, both kinds are involved together — stealing divides into the four kinds of ownership together with the six elements, and lying concerns both the person deceived and the further gain sought." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 8.]

[As for "stealing divides into the four kinds of ownership together with the six elements, and lying concerns both the person deceived and the further gain sought": if one reckons by the owner harmed in the precept against stealing, or the person deceived in the precept against lying, these are confined to sentient objects alone; but if one reckons by the physical object stolen, or the material gain sought through lying, these involve insentient objects as well. Within the precept against stealing, the owner and the object stolen are the most far-reaching of all, taking in nearly the whole of both sentient and insentient objects — this is treated fully later, in the Gate of Keeping and Violating.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian continues: "Now, the body and mind presently before us have, across immeasurable kalpas and within this present life alike, created karma of birth-and-death beyond all counting, an evil mind spread out and filling the entire Dharma-realm. A sutra says: were this to have physical form, the whole of empty space could not contain it. If one obtains precept, then all this immeasurable evil karma is turned into a pure precept-essence, becomes a wholesome seed, and forms the very root of eventual Buddhahood. The patriarch of Nanshan says: before receiving precept, one's evil already fills the whole Dharma-realm; now, wishing to go forward and receive it, one turns every one of those former evil objects around and gives rise to a wholesome mind in its place — hence the very cause from which precept is generated likewise fills the whole Dharma-realm." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 3.] The Zichi Commentary says: "As for 'Dharma-realm': reckoned by the ordinary limit of the teaching, this is confined to a single three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system; taken here in the Consummate Teaching's own sense, however, it must be discussed as the Dharma-realm of the ten directions. The essence of the non-act precept arises exactly matching its object, equal in measure to the whole Dharma-realm itself." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 8.]

Component Three: Generating the Aspiration in Accordance with the Object-Field

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "Next, the recipient is made to generate the precept. One should say to him: 'You should generate the upper-grade mind, so as to obtain the upper-grade precept.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The various Vinaya treatises discuss the upper grade in many different ways. The Vibhāṣā cited earlier speaks only of 'ever-increasing'; elsewhere that treatise, within the fifty grades of full ordination, divides each into upper, middle, and lower mind, making nine grades in all — yet this is only a general discussion of how concentrated or diffuse the mind is, and does not clearly set out the marks of the three grades as such. Here, wishing the recipient to recognize the mind and grasp its measure, the Commentary explains it in careful order — this alone is treated with such precision; nowhere else is it spelled out this way. That the exhortation speaks only of the upper grade shows that the middle and lower are not the true intent here; the upper grade is named specifically so the difference in excellence can be understood."

The Procedural Commentary says: "The Vaipulya Vinaya says: the aspiration is spoken thus — 'I now seek the path, and will save all sentient beings; every sentient being cherishes its own life.' Received on the basis of this alone, this is the lower-grade, tender mind — though one thereby obtains the Buddha's precept, it is not yet of the highest excellence." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In the lower grade, 'seeking the path' names the fruit aimed at; 'saving sentient beings' names the practice undertaken. Yet although this speaks of saving beings, the practice itself has degrees of depth: first, not harming another's life; second, guiding them by means of the Dharma; third, bringing them to ultimate liberation. Having the earlier does not entail having the later, but having the later necessarily includes the earlier. Reasoned through: the first merely protects life without bringing about liberation — this is the mind of the two lesser vehicles. What the middle grade cultivates — opening understanding through the Dharma, benefiting both self and other — falls short of ultimate liberation, and is the mind of a minor bodhisattva: though it aims at the Buddha-fruit, its practice occupies the middle ground, superior to the former yet still inferior to what follows. The upper grade guides beings all the way to Nirvāṇa, returning together to the Buddha's own path — this is the conduct of the great bodhisattva. Matched against the three positions in the Chapter on Novices, this corresponds exactly. Students, reaching this point, should clearly distinguish the boundaries of what each of the three minds aims at, in both practice and fruit."

[The "three positions in the Chapter on Novices" here refers to the passage on the three contemplations in the Gate of Separate Practice within the present compendium.]

The Procedural Commentary continues: "The remaining two are explained in terms of their sense. What is the middle grade? One who says: 'I now rightly set my mind toward the path; may I bring understanding to sentient beings, and become a ford and a bridge for all — able to benefit myself, and also to help others take up and uphold the true precept.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In the middle grade, the opening shows the fruit aimed at must still be reckoned in terms of the Buddha-vehicle; what follows shows the practice aimed at, benefiting both sides at once. 'Ford and bridge' is an analogy: sentient beings, fallen into doubt, thereby undergo birth-and-death, and this practitioner is able to open their understanding and bring them across. Birth-and-death is like the river-crossing, and one's own person is like the bridge — the analogy is self-evident."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "What is the upper grade? One who says: 'I now generate the mind and receive precept, so as to accomplish the three collections of pure precepts, and to enter the three gates of liberation, directly seeking the fruit of Nirvāṇa — and, further, using this same Dharma to guide sentient beings to Nirvāṇa, causing the Dharma to abide long in the world.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The upper grade has three parts: the opening shows the practice that benefits oneself; what follows shows the practice that benefits others; and 'causing the Dharma to abide long' shows the practice of protecting the Dharma. Within the first, what follows shows the far-reaching aim: the first two lines are the Mahayana's three trainings, that is, causal practice; the following line, seeking great Nirvāṇa, is the consummate fruit. 'The three collections of pure precepts' comes from the Sūtra of the Jeweled Necklace: first, the precept of the collection of formal discipline, which forbids evil, definitively cutting off karmic bonds and affliction — the practice of stopping; second, the precept of the collection of wholesome dharmas, which cultivates worldly and transmundane practice and realization to their ultimate completion — the practice of doing; third, the precept of the collection of benefiting sentient beings, which brings every single being to ultimate liberation — the practice of the four means of attraction, also called the precept of comprehensively benefiting sentient beings. 'The three gates of liberation,' though a matter of contemplative wisdom, cannot arise without concentration — together they are the two trainings of concentration and wisdom, through which the cutting-off of every bond and the realization of true reality are entered into. Though the name is shared with the Hīnayāna teaching, here, set against the three collections, it must be confined to the Mahayana sense: first, the gate of liberation through emptiness, the emptiness of self-nature; second, the gate of liberation through signlessness, the emptiness of characteristics; third, the gate of liberation through wishlessness, that is, mind-only. This shows that great conduct must be reckoned in terms of consummate cultivation. 'The fruit of Nirvāṇa,' though this name too is shared with the Hīnayāna, that the Mahayana sense is meant here should be clear. Question: is what is received here identical with the three collections, or not? If one says it is identical, must one then still separately receive the bodhisattva precepts afterward — and would this not confuse Great and Lesser Vehicles beyond distinction? If one says it is not identical, then, since precept arises from the mind, and this very mind has already been generated, how could this not already be that same precept? Either way one risks serious misunderstanding — hence this point is specially raised here, so the reader may work it out for himself. Next, on benefiting others: 'this Dharma' is the causal practice named above, and 'Nirvāṇa' is the fruit-virtue named above. Within protecting the Dharma: benefiting oneself and benefiting others, transmitted on from one to the next without break, keeps the Buddha-seed from ever being cut off, and this is how the Dharma comes to abide long in the world. Fearing the discussion has already grown too lengthy, only the outline is sketched here; the rest is treated fully in the Jieshu."

The Procedural Commentary says: "Once one thus knows for oneself the exact measure of one's own mind, the pure precept of the Buddha one obtains will likewise carry that same measure." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "This is precisely because the non-act precept is generated by means of the act itself; being neither physical matter nor mind, it has no way to be shown directly, and its superiority or inferiority can only be shown through the capacity of the one who receives it. As explained above, the upper grade aims far and wide, so the essence thereby received is certainly known to be all the more excellent."

The Procedural Commentary says: "Question: this school's own teaching — what vehicle does it belong to, that it should give rise to a Mahayana aspiration? Answer: this Four-Part Vinaya school, in substance, amounts to the Mahayana. Master Guang, too, classed it as belonging to Mahayana Vinaya." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "Since the upper grade explained above seems to overstep the teaching's own tradition, this question and its answer are necessary. In the answer, the first two lines give the heading: to say 'in substance amounts to' shows that the teaching-tradition is not, in itself, originally the Mahayana — its sense merely 'amounts to' it, which the Jieshu calls 'partially opening onto' the Mahayana, the sense here being the same. What follows invokes an ancient precedent, but that classification is far too loose and sweeping — though it draws on textual evidence, its conclusion cannot be wholly accepted: if the Four-Part Vinaya simply were the Mahayana, what then would count as Hīnayāna? It would then have to follow that its substance and conduct are entirely identical with the Brahma Net Sūtra, with no distinction at all between the bodhisattva precepts and the śrāvaka precepts — this is certainly not so. This is exactly why our own patriarch's own formulation proceeds with such deliberate restraint: 'in substance amounts to a partial opening onto' the Mahayana matches the teaching's true intent far more deeply. Question: is the upper-grade mind, then, wholly Mahayana, or only a partial opening onto it? Answer: it supports and completes the fundamental tradition itself, and is a matter of partial opening only. Question: on whose authority is this notion of 'partial opening' established? Answer: the Tathāgata, in establishing the teaching, shaped it to fit this very capacity; the founder of this branch, understanding this deeply, established the Tattvasiddhi school precisely to match the Buddha's own intent. This is exactly the sense repeatedly expressed throughout the prefaces to the Vinaya, both earlier and later, and in every position the Dharma-master himself settled on — how could this not be clear?" [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 8.]

["Partially opening onto," as the Jieshu uses the term, is treated further later, in the section on the Nominal-Designation school within the Gate of the Precept-Essence.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "Question: is this the same essence as the bodhisattva precept-essence, or different? Answer: the essence is the same, though the conditions differ. As for the conditions differing: in the Mahayana ordination, the threefold refuge, the four universal vows, requesting a preceptor, screening for impediments, the threefold karman procedure, and all the remaining formal elements are worlds apart from the present, lesser tradition's own two-part procedure. As for the essence being the same: the outward conditions are only a supporting aid, while the mind is the true, direct cause; the conditions are distant, the cause is intimate, and the essence is fundamentally generated from the cause — since the mind, as already shown, can be generated at the upper grade, one knows that the essence obtained here is itself already Mahayana. Question: if the essence is the same, how, then, are keeping and violating, and the setting up of repentance, and all the other marks of conduct, to be distinguished at all? Answer: though the essence is reckoned in terms of the Consummate Teaching, conduct must necessarily follow from what was actually received; since what was received follows the tradition proper to it, the marks of conduct show no discrepancy. If so, since keeping and violating are taken strictly according to the tradition received, why must the essence itself be reckoned in terms of the Consummate Teaching at all? Answer: because the essence runs through many different paths at once, it must be reconciled through the Consummate Teaching; because the discipline itself does not differ, it can still be treated according to its own tradition. Moreover, upholding it in accordance with the tradition received keeps reception and subsequent conduct in exact correspondence, while understanding it in terms of the Consummate Teaching lets the mind settle wherever it is applied. Once the great understanding has been opened up in this way, upholding the lesser discipline itself becomes great conduct — why, then, would one need to cast the lesser aside before it could be called 'great'? Hence the Jieshu says: 'constantly reflecting in this way, this very conduct is itself already the collection of formal discipline,' and so on." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 1.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "Thus, both the object that generates the precept and the mind that generates it admit of being ever-increased. These two paths must, before the actual reception, already have been imparted by a wise teacher, so that the mind continues unbroken from thought to thought, and the object stands out clear and bright in the mind. One must not wait until the very moment of ordination to speak, for the first time, of generating the mind. If this is left to the preceptor's instruction given only at that moment, the very marks of the Dharma will still seem hazy and unsettled — how, then, could the recipient possibly attain the upper grade? Or he may fail to generate anything at all — how could this not be the great matter it is?" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "This repeats the two components discussed above, warning that instruction must be given early. What follows names mind and object once more: the mind must remain unbroken thought after thought, and the object must, in every single dharma, remain undimmed. The slightest deviation and it is already lost — how could one fail to be careful? People today, ignorant of the teaching, know only how to recite the words by rote — is this not exactly the karma of past lives catching up with them, causing this present life to be spent in vain? One must earnestly hold oneself to account, and resolve to pursue this properly from now on. 'Hazy and unsettled' is because, done in haste at the last moment, it easily admits of error." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 8.]

Component Four: Applying the Mind in Reverent Reception

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "Mind and object corresponding to one another is the very essence of what is received. At the actual moment of performing the formula, one should still the mind and set it in motion in contemplation, reaching in every direction across the sentient and insentient objects described above; because the object is so vast, the mind, too, must extend to match it. Thought after thought must remain present, never allowed to drift or scatter. One should envision one's own body as encompassing the whole of empty space, capable of receiving the precept-Dharma, as numerous as motes of dust, throughout the entire Dharma-realm. At this very moment, one must apply the mind with the greatest care, and let it stray to nothing else. Should one drift even the slightest hair's breadth, one will merely have been touched, in passing, by the stream of the Dharma, and an entire lifetime will have been spent in vain. How could one fail to be careful here?" [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 3.]

Part Four: Praising Its Merit and Asking the Portion

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "The Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts says: having fully questioned the candidate on the disqualifying impediments, if none apply, one should say to him: 'This precept is exceedingly difficult to receive — it is able to serve as the very root of both the śrāvaka precepts and the bodhisattva precepts. Good man, precept is of five kinds, beginning with not killing and extending up to not drinking alcohol. If you receive one precept, you are called an upāsaka of one portion; if you fully uphold all five, you are called an upāsaka of the full portion. Which portion of precept do you now wish to receive? You should receive it exactly as you wish.' The wise preceptor should then confer it in accordance with what the candidate has said." The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) glosses: "The reason the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts has the candidate questioned about the marks of precept is that, in the actual practice of the Dharma, the intent is that it be carried through from beginning to end without break; it does not simply insist on receiving all five in full, which could otherwise lead to some being received and then abandoned partway. One observes the candidate's own resolve, examines his wisdom or foolishness, weighs his capacity, and only then advances the Dharma to him — so that reception is never merely an empty formality." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "This explains the reason for receiving by portion. 'Receiving in full' means receiving all five items at once; 'some being abandoned partway' means receiving them and then breaking them."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "Question: earlier, the Refuges that Turn One from Wrong Views were simply conferred straightaway — why, then, must the Five Precepts' own refuge be screened and taken up in portions? Answer: turning from wrong views means turning one's back on wrong views, and the newly-arising mind is hard to draw out at all; once it has suddenly turned toward the right, one should lead it into refuge at once — were one to hesitate and deliberate further, it might well slip back into its old track. The Five Precepts are not like this: having already taken refuge in what is right beforehand, the disposition of the mind has by then grown pliant, and is able to reflect on its own past errors. This is exactly why screening and selection are needed before one enters the gate of the path — since if any of the five aspects of the body is deficient, the three vehicles have nothing to rest upon. One still receives by portion in accordance with this, all of it a matter of adapting to the candidate's present capacity, meeting his readiness, and spreading the teaching accordingly." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "In receiving refuge earlier, no screening of capacity is legislated — this differs from the present case, hence the question must be settled. The answer has two parts: first, it answers why the Three Refuges need no screening; second, why the Five Precepts require screening, first showing the difference: one, the candidate has already received refuge beforehand, so there is no fear of backsliding; two, since this is the very gateway into the path, a pure vessel must be selected. The Five Precepts are the very foundation of the sage's path, and if any part is deficient, the three vehicles have nothing to rest upon — for fear of careless violation, screening is therefore required. What follows gives the corresponding rule: even one whose disposition is already pure must still have his capacity weighed, and is permitted to receive by portion accordingly — this shows plainly that it is precisely out of concern for future violation that screening is legislated at all." [The above is all found in the Commentary and its sub-commentary, fascicle 10.]

Part Five: Repentance and Purification

The Karman Commentary says: "The Āgamas and other sutras say: before ordination, one must first repent one's offenses, and only then receive the Dharma." The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "What follows shows that conduct must be purified before the Dharma can be received. Beginningless ignorance alone is already the root of birth-and-death, and whether one follows or violates it, in principle or in fact, both count as offense. This is exactly why repentance must come first, purifying the mind, before it is fit to receive the sage-Dharma." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "That repentance comes first and reception follows is affirmed in both sutra and treatise alike, hence the citation 'the Āgamas and other sutras.' Deluded arising without awareness is called beginningless ignorance, and since it is the very basis on which karmic suffering rests, it is the root of birth-and-death. A stirring thought that violates principle, or an act that violates conduct — both are plainly offenses. That even 'following' can carry offense is because, in an ordinary mind still learning the path, the fundamental delusions remain present: even when acting in accord with principle, grasping and rejecting have not yet been set aside, and even in ordinary conduct, the notions of self and other are hard to uproot. This is why both violating and following alike carry offense, and why, by rights, repentance must purify the mind before it can meet the pure Dharma." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Six: Distinctions in the Formula
[This part divides into three components: first, Immediate Guidance; second, The Actual Reception of the Precept-Essence; third, Explaining the Marks and Final Exhortation.]

Component One: Immediate Guidance

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "When this moment arrives, one must broadly expound and guide the candidate through the true core of what generates the precept. It will not do simply to say, 'arouse the upper-grade mind' — for how would the recipient then know what the upper grade actually is? To merely ask this of him would be pointless. What follows gives only a brief sketch of its outward shape; at the actual moment, it need not be recited word for word." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "'Must' shows that what was explained earlier, on generating the precept, was only preparatory study, not yet its actual application. Now, about to receive the Dharma itself, even if the candidate already understands in principle, the preceptor must still carefully select the essential words to rouse his still-clouded mind. The preceptor, at this juncture, must not be careless or perfunctory. Guiding him to genuine understanding is the very root of receiving the Dharma, hence it is called 'the true core.'"

The Procedural Commentary continues: "One should say to him: 'Good man, this profound precept, this supreme good, encompasses the whole Dharma-realm. You should generate the upper mind, so as to obtain the upper Dharma. In receiving this precept now, you do so in order to reach the fruit of Nirvāṇa, to enter the three gates of liberation, to accomplish the three collections of pure precepts, and to cause the true Dharma to abide long — this is what is called the upper-grade mind.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The opening points to the substance of the Dharma; what follows directly shows the generating of the mind."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "Next, to open your mind still further: since precept-Dharma as numerous as motes of dust is about to be poured into your very body, this can never be received by an ordinary body and mind obtained through past karmic retribution alone. You must generate the resolve to make your body a vessel the size of empty space itself, and only then will you be able to receive the wholesome dharmas of the entire Dharma-realm. Hence a treatise says: were this precept-Dharma to possess physical form, entering your body would produce a sound like heaven splitting apart and earth breaking open. It is only because it is not a physical dharma that you fail to notice it at all. You should therefore rouse a mind of awe and dread, and generate the upper-grade mind, weighty and sincere." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The five aggregates of body and mind, brought about by past causes, are what is meant by 'obtained through karmic retribution.' Since the Dharma is so vast and all-encompassing, an inferior retribution-body cannot contain it, and one must actively set the mind in motion before it can be properly received. Empty space is without bound, and the measure of the body envisioned must equal it. Mind and Dharma corresponding to each other, the Dharma is drawn in and gathered into the mind, which then still depends, in the end, on the retribution-body to hold it."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "Now the formula will be performed for you. This is what the Tathāgata himself legislated: it generates and obtains the wholesome dharmas of the Dharma-realm, as numerous as motes of dust, and pours them into your body and mind. You must be aware of this." The Zichi Commentary says: "The first stirs it into motion; the next gathers it together and raises it into space; the last pours it into body and mind, where it is received to its completion. The three stages proceed in order, each with its own governing role. Because the power of karmic mind is inconceivable, whatever action is thereby performed cannot fail to be accomplished." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 9.]

[The three stages — first, next, and last — correspond, when receiving the Five or Eight Precepts, to the threefold recitation of the vow of refuge by which the precept-essence is received, exactly as set out in the text below. At the first recitation of the vow, the wholesome dharmas of the Dharma-realm are, by the power of karmic mind, turned from evil into good, and all set into motion. At the second recitation, the wholesome dharmas of the Dharma-realm gather together in space, like clouds, like a canopy. At the third recitation, the wholesome dharmas of the Dharma-realm descend from space and pour into body and mind, filling the direct retribution-body to its full measure.]

The Jiyuan Commentary says: "Gathering in the boundless sage-Dharma, storing it within a conditioned, ordinary body — the foundation of the Five Aggregates is thereby laid, and the substance of the three bodies made complete. To rise above the defiled stream of the ordinary and enter the jeweled ranks of the sages — is this not exactly what is meant here?" [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 15.]

Component Two: The Actual Reception of the Precept-Essence

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The formula: 'I, so-and-so, take refuge in the Buddha, take refuge in the Dharma, take refuge in the Saṅgha; for the whole of this bodily life I become a Five-Precept upāsaka. The Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly and Fully Enlightened One, is my World-Honored One.' (Said three times.) 'I, so-and-so, have taken refuge in the Buddha, have taken refuge in the Dharma, have taken refuge in the Saṅgha; for the whole of this bodily life I am a Five-Precept upāsaka. The Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly and Fully Enlightened One, is my World-Honored One.' (Said three times, as the closing.)" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The wording divides into five parts. First, stating one's own name. Second, taking refuge in the Three Jewels, directing the mind toward that object. Third, 'for the whole of this bodily life' and the like, showing the term intended — the text gives 'for the whole of this bodily life,' though it may be changed, as circumstances warrant, to a single day and night, a month, or a year. Fourth, 'become a Five-Precept upāsaka' is the actual establishing of the vow — the text gives the full portion, though one or two portions may likewise be given depending on the occasion. Fifth, 'the Tathāgata... World-Honored One' closes by fixing refuge onto its proper basis. Since the name 'Three Jewels' is shared, in some form, across the ninety-six non-Buddhist schools, it is necessary afterward to show the true object clearly, so as not to be confused with those false claimants — hence this superior title, which the non-Buddhist teachers utterly lack. 'Tathāgata' means one who has come riding the path of true reality to accomplish Buddhahood; 'Worthy One' means one whose realization of the substance is free of any deviance; 'Perfectly and Fully Enlightened One' means one whose path is identical with that of the Buddhas of all three times — this alone is who I truly take refuge in, and no other object is to be honored, hence 'is my World-Honored One.' The first threefold vow of refuge is what actually generates the condition for the precept; the moment these three recitations are complete, the precept-essence is already received. The latter threefold closing is a charge, not itself a further act of reception." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "Once the threefold conferral is complete, one announces: 'What was just conferred in the threefold refuge is precisely the precept-essence itself. This further threefold closing now shows what the precept is grounded in.'" The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) glosses: "Announcing that the precept-essence has been received lets the candidate know exactly at what point it was obtained — unlike the older custom, in which one would only speak of having 'received precept' after the precept-marks had been explained afterward." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "The Vibhāṣā says: some hold that once the threefold refuge is complete and the single precept against killing has been stated, the precept is obtained at that point, because that particular clause carries the weight of the whole set, the original intent being to receive all five. Others hold that precept is obtained only once all five have been fully stated. Fearing some might cling to this latter view, the point is specially singled out here for correction. That treatise itself says: among all these positions, that precept is obtained once the Three Refuges are complete is the settled, correct position — and this is exactly the position adopted here." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Component Three: Explaining the Marks and Final Exhortation

The Procedural Commentary says: "The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: the preceptor should say to him: 'You, upāsaka, listen well. This is the Dharma taught by the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly and Fully Enlightened One, expounding the marks of the Five Precepts for upāsakas. You should listen and receive it. For the whole of this bodily life, not killing living beings — this is the upāsaka precept. Can you uphold it?' Answer: 'I can.' 'For the whole of this bodily life, not stealing — this is the upāsaka precept. Can you uphold it?' Answer: 'I can.' The precepts against sexual misconduct, false speech, and drinking alcohol, for the whole of this bodily life, are each stated following exactly the same pattern above." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "'Tathā' means 'thus'; 'āgata' means 'come.' 'Arhat' means 'worthy' — worthy of offerings. 'Samyaksaṃbuddha' means 'perfectly and fully enlightened.' Naming these three titles together is likewise meant to arouse faith and reverence."

[The full meaning of the marks of the Five Precepts is explained fully later, within Distinct Marks of Keeping and Violating in the Gate of Keeping and Violating; the marks of the Eight Precepts, treated later, follow the same pattern.]

The Procedural Commentary continues: "This, then, is the layperson's Five Precepts, which you should uphold for the whole of this bodily life. You should make offerings to the Three Jewels, and encourage others to perform every kind of meritorious deed. In the three months of the year, and on the six days of each month, you should always keep the fast. Using this merit, dedicate it to all sentient beings, and let its fruit become the accomplishment of Buddhahood." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "What follows gives four charges: first, to guard the precepts with care; second, to encourage the performing of merit; third, to observe the fast; fourth, to teach dedication of merit. 'The three months' means the first, fifth, and ninth months, during which the karmic mirror of the netherworld is said to turn and shine upon this southern continent, so that every good and evil deed appears within it; or, as others say, the Heavenly King makes his circuit of the four continents during these three months, this southern continent being his object; or again, that these three months are when evil spirits hold the greatest sway, and so one is told to cultivate good then. 'The six days of the month' means, within each bright and dark half of the month, three specified days each. According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, on the eighth the Heavenly King's messengers descend, on the fourteenth the Heavenly King's own crown prince descends, and on the fifteenth the Heavenly King himself descends, each in turn observing the good and evil of sentient beings; the twenty-third, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth are the same. In a short month, this is adjusted according to the poṣadha calendar. Those keeping the fast either receive the Eight Precepts, or simply observe the fast alone: eating once before noon, and taking nothing further afterward. Many today eat vegetables freely but do not restrain themselves at the evening meal — though this does not amount to a proper fast, it is still better than eating meat and blood. There are also those who drink only water for the entire day and call this a 'pure fast' — this is a mistaken, non-Buddhist practice. All sentient beings depend on food to live; the Buddha's own correct teaching asks only that one not eat past noon." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Vibhāṣā asks: without receiving the Three Refuges, can one obtain the Five Precepts? Answer: one cannot — the refuge must be conferred first, before the precept can be obtained at all. As for why the precepts are then named aloud afterward: this is done so the recipient will know their names and thereby be able to guard his own conduct accordingly." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The opening fixes that the essence is necessarily generated at the Three Refuges. What follows shows that stating the marks afterward serves a separate, further purpose." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Seven: Sundry Clarifications

[Sundry Clarifications here sets the Multi school and the Tattvasiddhi school side by side to show their differences. There are six points: first, applicability across destinies; second, gradual versus sudden reception; third, extending or shortening the term; fourth, how many branches are generated; fifth, self-ordination; sixth, re-reception. A table is appended after the text.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "The Vibhāṣā says: nāgas are subsumed under animals, and, on account of their karmic obstruction, understand nothing at all — they have no way to receive precept. Though a sutra speaks of their receiving the Eight Precepts of the Fast, they thereby obtain only the merit of a wholesome mind, not the fast itself. The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: beings of other destinies can obtain the discipline of precept, since a sutra states that nāgas, too, receive the one-day precept. The Samantapāsādikā says: nāgas and spirits can obtain the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. Reasoned on the basis of the Vibhāṣā: since even a human being incapable of understanding cannot receive it, how much less could a ghost or an animal? As for those said elsewhere to obtain it, this refers to those among them capable of understanding." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Though a sutra' refers to the passage in the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts where a nāga receives the Eight Precepts; the treatise anticipates the objection and resolves it by explaining the underlying intent. 'The fast' means the Eight Precepts, and this is exactly the position the Tattvasiddhi treatise relies on, cited just below. The 'spirits' in the Samantapāsādikā belong to the hungry-ghost destiny."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "According to the Vibhāṣā, if the Five Precepts are not received in full but only in part, no precept is obtained at all — even where sutras are cited saying such a person 'keeps two or three,' this speaks only of their conduct, not of what essence was actually received. The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: someone asks, are the Five Precepts and the prātimokṣa only received all at once, with no gradual reception possible — how does this stand? The treatise answers: whether one receives one, two, or three, discipline is obtained in every case. This matches what the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts lists as the upāsaka of one portion, two portions, a few portions, most portions, or the full portion. On this basis, gradual reception is confirmed beyond doubt, and even receiving from a preceptor just one single precept obtains it — as in the example of Bakkula, who received only the precept against killing." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Not received in full but only in part' means not receiving all five but only one or two, so that the precept-essence is not generated at all. This is resolved just below in the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts' own account of receiving the five by portion: that sutra holds that at the moment of reception all five precepts are generated at once, and it is only in how many one subsequently keeps that the terms 'one portion,' 'few portions,' and so on arise. Next, in the Tattvasiddhi treatise: 'all at once' means receiving all five together, 'gradual' means receiving by portion. Since the Three Refuges earlier do not permit any of the three to be left out, and separate reception from different preceptors is likewise ruled invalid, this question is specially settled here, for fear one might suppose the Five Precepts work the same way. 'Bakkula' translates as 'good countenance,' since he was known for his fine bearing. He was of the brahmin caste, a native of India. In the time of the ancient Buddha Vipaśyin, he had once, as a poor man, given a single myrobalan fruit to a sick monk, who recovered upon eating it; through this single cause, he enjoyed happiness and merit among gods and humans for ninety-one kalpas. In this present life he was born into a brahmin family; his mother died young, and his stepmother, hating him, tried repeatedly to kill him, yet he never died. He later sought ordination under the Buddha and attained arhatship, living to the age of one hundred and sixty without ever once falling ill — all this on account of having once kept, in that single past life, only the one precept against killing. This confirms, beyond any doubt, that receiving by portion is doctrinally sound."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "As the Vibhāṣā and the *Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya both explain: the Five Precepts, received once, are fixed by the Buddha's own legislation and must necessarily be kept for the whole of bodily life; the Eight Precepts must necessarily be kept for one day and night only — in neither case may this be departed from. In the Treatise on Establishing Reality, however, either may be received for however many days one wishes, up to and including the whole of bodily life." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "That the Five Precepts, kept for a whole lifetime, cannot be shortened, and the Eight Precepts, kept for a day and night, cannot be extended, is because they are fixed by the Buddha's own legislation. What follows cites the Tattvasiddhi treatise: both precepts may be extended or shortened freely." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom asks: of the four verbal faults, why does only false speech appear among the Five Precepts? Answer: naming false speech alone already takes in the other three as well; moreover, the Buddha-Dharma prizes truthful speech above all, and so it is given priority." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "According to the Sarvāstivāda school, only four branches are generated; the Tattvasiddhi school generates all seven, which agrees rather closely with this treatise, hence it is cited here to show this. In the answer, the first two lines directly answer why only one is named; what follows explains further why false speech specifically was chosen, anticipating the question of why one of the other three verbal faults was not named instead." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Zhiyuan Yibian says: "In that Sarvāstivāda tradition, the Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, and Ten Precepts generate only four branches — it is full ordination alone that generates all seven. In this tradition, all seven assemblies alike are bound equally by all seven branches." [Cited from the Zhiyuan Yibian, fascicle 1.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "As the Vinaya text itself allows self-ordination in every case, while the Vibhāṣā's own text permits the five assemblies to receive from a preceptor — both are said to be valid." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The root Vinaya and the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom both permit self-ordination; the Vibhāṣā and the Kośa both require reception from a preceptor. Though both are said to be valid, this is settled below, under the Eight Precepts: self-ordination is permitted only where no preceptor is available; where one is available, self-ordination is not permitted."

The Commentary continues: "Reckoned by this question and answer, reception from a preceptor is the rule. Yet the Vinaya text itself gives: 'World-Honored One, I now take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha; for the whole of this bodily life I will not kill... up to... not drink alcohol' — this is precisely a self-administered vow. Since the Eight Precepts already permit this, it should be permitted here as well. Whether to apply this depends on the occasion — the point is not meant to be rigidly restrictive. In reaching out to convert ordinary people, one should raise whichever approach fits the capacity at hand." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The opening points to reception from a preceptor above; what follows shows self-ordination. The Tattvasiddhi treatise likewise allows self-ordination for the Eight Precepts, as cited later."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "According to the Vibhāṣā, one may not receive precept again. According to the Tattvasiddhi treatise and the Four-Part Vinaya, both allow re-reception — Queen Mallikā receiving the Five Precepts a second and even a third time is exactly the proof of this." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "In the Multi school, the Five Precepts must necessarily be kept for the whole of life, and so are received only once, with no possibility of adding to them again. The Tattvasiddhi school is not like this: whatever term one receives them for, one may receive and add to them again and again. The case of receiving two or three times over is recorded in the Four-Part Vinaya." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

First, applicability across destinies — Multi school: beings of other destinies do not obtain precept; Tattvasiddhi school: beings of other destinies do obtain precept.
Second, gradual versus sudden — Multi school: receiving less than the full set obtains no precept at all; Tattvasiddhi school: receiving less than the full set still obtains precept.
Third, extending or shortening the term — Multi school: the Five Precepts must be kept for life, the Eight Precepts for one day and night only; Tattvasiddhi school: the term may be freely extended or shortened.
Fourth, how many branches are generated — Multi school: only four branches are generated; Tattvasiddhi school: all seven branches are generated.
Fifth, self-ordination — Multi school: reception must be from a preceptor; Tattvasiddhi school: self-ordination is permitted.
Sixth, re-reception — Multi school: re-reception is not permitted; Tattvasiddhi school: re-reception is permitted.

Section Three: The Eight Precepts
This section divides into six parts: first, Explaining the Name; second, Its Merit; third, Screening Candidates; fourth, Repentance; fifth, The Formula; sixth, Sundry Clarifications.

Part One: Explaining the Name

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "As for why it is called 'precept,' called 'fast,' and called 'closure' — however many the names, all without exception mean gathering purity and turning the mind back to itself. As for 'the Eight Precepts': 'eight' names the objects being guarded against, 'precept' names the karmic action able to counter them. As for 'the eightfold fast': 'fast' means 'to make level,' bringing the mind to a single, unified point — it is also said to mean 'to purify,' stilling and gathering one's thoughts, just as a quiet room in ordinary life is likewise called a 'fasting-hall.' As for 'the closure-fast': this means shutting off wrongdoing and idleness, stilling and settling body and mind." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The opening gives an overall showing of the three names — sometimes each is used singly, sometimes strung together as 'the Eight Precepts of the Poṣadha Fast'; the sutras and Vinaya call it by different names in different places. Ceasing distraction and departing from fault, wholesome dharma increasing from within — this is exactly what is meant by 'gathering purity and turning the mind back to itself.' What follows explains the three separately: first, the meaning of 'precept' — what is guarded against is the fault, what counters it is the practice. Next, the meaning of 'fast' has two senses: 'level' takes the sense of single-minded focus, the mind without differentiation; 'purify' takes the sense of departing from fault, cutting off every scattered thought — the 'fasting-halls' of ordinary life likewise take the sense of quiet stillness. Third, the meaning of 'closure': taken from an analogy for its name — just as an ordinary gate closes off wrongdoers and stops bandits, this is exactly the sense of 'shutting off.'" [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Two: Its Merit

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Vibhāṣā says: a sutra says that even becoming a wheel-turning king of Jambudvīpa, possessed of every human treasure and complete mastery over it all, does not equal a sixteenth part of the merit of the Eight Precepts." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'Jambudvīpa king' means the wheel-turning king. In that land a single coin was divided into sixteen parts, and sutras and treatises frequently use this as a standard of comparison."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts says: excepting the five heinous offenses, every other offense is thereby extinguished."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: it is like a weak, timid general commanding troops — he never accomplishes anything in the end; a valiant general, by contrast, breaks the enemy in a single day, his achievement covering the whole realm. The Five Precepts and Eight Precepts stand in exactly this same relation. This is because the Five Precepts only depart from illicit sexual conduct, without yet cutting it off entirely, while the Eight Precepts' own conduct is wholly pure, matching the undefiled state itself. Reckoned by term, the Eight Precepts' period is short; reckoned by conduct, what they accomplish is greater — hence their merit surpasses that of the Five Precepts." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Desire is the very root of birth-and-death, and cutting off desire entirely transcends birth itself, hence the comparison is drawn specifically in terms of sexual conduct. Though its term is shorter and does not match a whole lifetime, its conduct adds three further items beyond the Five Precepts, and moreover cuts off even licit sexual conduct."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: even the Heavenly King's own fortune of merit cannot equal it. Śakra recited a verse; the Buddha stopped him, saying: 'Only one whose outflows are exhausted should recite such a verse.' On the six poṣadha-spirit days, whoever upholds the Eight Precepts — this person's obtained merit is then equal to my own." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "'The Heavenly King' means Śakra, lord of the Thirty-Three Heavens. According to the treatise, Śakra recited the verse first, and the Buddha only then stopped him; the passage here cites the two in reverse order. 'The six poṣadha-spirit days' means the days on which the heavenly spirits descend. 'Is then equal to my own' means Śakra himself claimed that the merit of upholding the Eight Precepts equaled his own. The Buddha rebuked and stopped him: only one whose outflows are exhausted could rightly recite such a verse, since that merit equals the undefiled merit of the sages of the three vehicles — a merit Śakra's own heavenly fortune, however great, cannot reach." [The above is all found in the Commentary and its sub-commentary, fascicle 10.]

The Yichao says: "An upāsaka who has received only the Three Refuges and Five Precepts, on hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, may attain the first two of the four fruits, but does not realize the third or fourth. One who has received the Eight Precepts may realize the third and fourth as well." [Cited from the Shi Piniyi Chao, fascicle 1.]

Part Three: Screening Candidates

The Yichao says: "For the Eight Precepts as well, one questions the candidate on the various disqualifying impediments, following the same explanation given for the Five Precepts." [Cited from the Shi Piniyi Chao, fascicle 1.]

Part Four: Repentance

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "Next comes repentance. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: 'I, so-and-so — if my bodily, verbal, or mental karma has been unwholesome, on account of greed, hatred, or delusion, and if such offenses exist from this present life or from past lives, today I sincerely repent them. With the three types of karma made pure, I now receive and undertake the Eight Precepts of the Fast — this alone is what is called poṣadha.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "'Poṣadha' is translated 'pure abiding,' also rendered 'purity.'"

The Procedural Commentary says: "The Ekottarāgama says: if one is to receive the Eight Precepts of the Fast, one must first repent one's offenses, and only afterward receive the precept." [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

Part Five: The Formula
[This part divides into two components: first, The Actual Reception of the Precept-Essence; second, Stating the Marks and Making the Vow.]

Component One: The Actual Reception of the Precept-Essence

[Before ordination, the preparatory generating of the precept and the immediate guidance beforehand are exactly the same as for the Five Precepts, and may be understood by the same pattern.]

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "The Kośa says: the one about to receive precept should sit lower than the preceptor, join his palms, and follow the words of the one conferring precept — neither speaking ahead of him nor together with him. If this is violated, the ordination does not succeed." The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) glosses: "'Follow the words of the one conferring precept' — because the relationship between preceptor and disciple is accomplished through a proper way, and conferral and reception each have their own decorum; this is not something to be treated lightly." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[The same principle applies when receiving the Three Refuges and Five Precepts.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "Next, the formula for receiving. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: to receive the one-day precept, kneel upright with palms joined, and say: 'I, so-and-so, take refuge in the Buddha, take refuge in the Dharma, take refuge in the Saṅgha; for one day and one night I become a pure-conduct upāsaka.' (Said three times.) 'I, so-and-so, have taken refuge in the Buddha, have taken refuge in the Dharma, have taken refuge in the Saṅgha; for one day and one night I have become a pure-conduct upāsaka.' (Said three times, as the closing.)" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "The text divides into four parts: first, stating one's name; second, taking refuge in the object; third, fixing the term — according to the Tattvasiddhi treatise cited below, this may be extended or shortened and adjusted to suit the individual; fourth, establishing the vow." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "As for 'pure conduct': for the whole of the term intended, one upholds all nine branches, matching the very precepts of every Buddha, hence 'pure.' As for why 'the Tathāgata, the Perfectly Enlightened One' is not spoken here: in the Five Precepts, the first item merely departs from illicit sexual conduct, and so that final title is added specifically to set it apart as correct; here, where an even more excellent conduct has already been added on top of the Five, what further need is there for it?" The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Because it matches the Buddha's own precept, it is called 'pure conduct.' In my own reading: this is set against the earlier Five Precepts, which do not yet fully correct sexual conduct, hence that extra title was added there to distinguish it. Since the Five Precepts, at their close, list all three titles in full, and the present text lacks them, this passage explains why. If so, then for someone who receives the Eight Precepts directly, without first receiving the Five — since this is not a case of 'adding further' on top of an existing set — by rights the title ought to be added back in. In my own reading: this addition or omission belongs to the formula's own circumstantial wording, not to the actual words of reception itself, and the sense should reasonably be allowed to apply either way; the text here simply explains it according to the more usual case." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Component Two: Stating the Marks and Making the Vow

The Procedural Commentary says: "Next, the marks are stated: 'As every Buddha, for the whole of life, does not kill living beings, so I, so-and-so, for one day and one night, likewise do not kill living beings. As every Buddha, for the whole of life, does not steal, so I, so-and-so, for one day and one night, likewise do not steal. As every Buddha, for the whole of life, does not engage in sexual conduct, so I, so-and-so, for one day and one night, likewise do not engage in sexual conduct. As every Buddha, for the whole of life, does not speak falsely, so I, so-and-so, for one day and one night, likewise do not speak falsely.' Not drinking alcohol, not sitting or lying on a high, broad bed, not wearing garlands or perfumed adornments or scenting the body or clothing, not singing, dancing, or making music oneself, nor deliberately going to watch or listen to such things — all likewise stated in the same way. Having thus received the Eight Precepts: 'As every Buddha, for the whole of life, does not eat past noon, so I, so-and-so, for one day and one night, likewise do not eat past noon. I, so-and-so, receive and undertake the Eight Precepts, following the Dharma of every Buddha — this is what is called poṣadha.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In stating the marks proper, the text follows the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom entirely. As for why, though the text lists nine items, it is still called 'eight': the Vibhāṣā says that the fast takes 'not eating past noon' as its very substance, while the other eight items serve to bring this out clearly, so that the substance of the fast is completed — the Eight Precepts guard against wrongdoing and idleness, and it is only through them that the purity of keeping the fast is actually made manifest. Together, mutually supporting one another, they are called the eight-branched fast — hence 'the eightfold fast' rather than 'the ninefold fast.' This is exactly why 'not eating past noon' is stated separately, on its own, at the end. According to the Karman Commentary, the high bed and song-and-dance items are combined into one, with 'not eating past noon' counted as the eighth; and in the Ekottarāgama, 'not eating past noon' is given as the sixth item, with the adornment and watching-and-listening items combined into one. The sources differ in how they are counted, but either arrangement is equally valid."

The Procedural Commentary continues: "'May I hold fast to this fortune of merit from the poṣadha; may I, birth after birth, never fall into the three evil destinies or the eight difficult conditions. Nor do I seek the pleasures of a wheel-turning sage-king, a Brahmā king, or a Śakra, lord of the heavens. May all my afflictions be exhausted, may I attain sarvajñā, and accomplish the Buddha's own path.'" The Zichi Commentary glosses: "In teaching the vow: the opening is freedom from the evil destinies; what follows sets aside worldly reward; and what follows that shows what is actually sought. 'Sarvajñā' is translated 'all-knowing wisdom.'" [The above is all found in the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

[The Karman Adapted to Circumstance states the marks and the vow differently from the Procedural Commentary in every particular; it is recorded below. Either version may be followed, and both are equally valid.]

The Karman Commentary says: "In conferring the marks of precept, one says: 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, does not kill living beings, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, do not kill living beings. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, does not steal, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, do not steal. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, does not engage in sexual conduct, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, do not engage in sexual conduct. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, does not speak falsely, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, do not speak falsely and do not drink alcohol. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, avoids garlands, perfumed adornments, and scented oils applied to the body, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, avoid garlands, perfumed adornments, and scented substances applied to the body. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, avoids sitting upon a high, luxurious bed, and making or deliberately going to watch or listen to song and performance, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, avoid sitting upon a high, luxurious bed, and making or deliberately going to watch or listen to song and performance. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.' 'As every Buddha, for the whole of bodily life, avoids eating outside the proper time, so you, so-and-so, for one day and night, avoid eating outside the proper time. Can you uphold this?' Answer: 'I can.'" The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "'As every Buddha... does not kill living beings' names the supreme object's own conduct as the standard; 'so you, so-and-so' onward applies it to oneself, matching that standard. The question-and-answer form makes the holding of the vow fully explicit. Some editions read 'I, so-and-so, for one day and night, likewise do not kill living beings,' simply stating directly one's own agreement to match the Buddha above, without recourse to question and answer — this too suffices to state the marks; the rest follow the same pattern. On the third item, sexual conduct: here it is kept away from entirely, both toward oneself and toward another. Some say this should be called 'illicit sexual conduct,' as in the marks of the Five Precepts, since there conduct toward another is prohibited while conduct toward one's own spouse is permitted — but calling it 'illicit' here, for the Eight Precepts, is a mistake. On the fifth mark: some add 'pungent foods' here, but the correct text contains no such thing — having received a body dedicated to purity, how could one still eat rank, strong-smelling food? This addition cannot stand. On the sixth item, garlands and perfumed unguents: in India these were used as beautifying adornment; in this land, what is prized instead is fine clothing and ornament, and powder and rouge applied to the face, taken as a form of self-cultivation — following the treatise's own sense of 'departing from former adornment,' the meaning must be adapted accordingly. The seventh item, avoiding a high, luxurious bed and watching or listening to song and performance, combines two conditions of dissipation and laxity into a single precept."

The Karman Commentary continues: "The Āgama says: having conferred the precepts above in this order, one should then teach the vow, saying: 'By the merit of this Eight Precepts of the Poṣadha Fast, may I never fall into the evil destinies, the eight difficult conditions, or the border regions. Taking up this merit, may I draw in and absorb the evil of every sentient being. And may whatever merit I have, I bestow it upon others, that they may accomplish the unsurpassed, true path — and may I also, at the future time of Maitreya Buddha's three assemblies, attain deliverance from birth, old age, sickness, and death.'" The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "The second part explains the vow, benefiting both self and others at once. That the merit of keeping the fast counters the evil destinies eliminates the difficulty of a formless rebirth; the eight difficulties eliminated remove obstacles to hearing and reflecting on the Dharma — the above explains benefit to oneself. 'Absorbing others' evil and bestowing one's own good on them' is the mind of practicing the great path; 'accomplishing the true path' means not by any lesser expedient means, but by the one single vehicle alone. 'The future three assemblies' refers to the hoped-for encounter with Maitreya — a near and comforting thing to fix the mind upon." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "The opening gives an overall showing. What follows explains it in two parts: first, benefit to oneself — precept-Dharma can only be received by human beings, hence the evil destinies count as an impediment to precept; cultivating the wisdom of hearing, reflecting, and meditating requires being born into a good destiny, meeting a Buddha, hearing the Dharma, and possessing sound faculties and correct faith, hence the eight difficulties count as obstacles to hearing and reflecting. What follows explains benefit to others: 'the mind of practicing the great path' is the bodhisattva's own conduct; 'expedient means' refers to the provisional teaching of the two lesser vehicles, while 'the one vehicle' is the true teaching of the Buddha's own path. This is not a point confined to the Eight Precepts alone — this whole tradition's teaching is established throughout on exactly this same intent, and the student should bear it in mind." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Part Six: Sundry Clarifications

[This part divides into four components: first, Comparing Against Other Schools; second, Whether Delayed Reception Still Succeeds; third, Receiving Alone to Avoid Fault; fourth, Cutting Off Evil to Attain Purity.]

Component One: Comparing Against Other Schools

[Comparing Against Other Schools here sets out four points: first, which assembly the recipient belongs to; second, gradual versus sudden reception; third, extending or shortening the term; fourth, self-ordination. The rest follow the same treatment already given in the Five Precepts' own Sundry Clarifications.]

The Commentary on Karman Procedures (Yeshu) says: "The Vibhāṣā says: one who has received the Eight Precepts — to which of the seven assemblies does he belong? Though he lacks a lifetime precept, he possesses a day-and-night precept, and so should be called an upāsaka. Yet if he is given that name, he still lacks a lifetime precept; and if it is said he is not an upāsaka, he still possesses a day-and-night precept. He can only be called an 'in-between person' — that is, beyond the seven assemblies there exists this further category, the mokṣa precept of the Eight Precepts." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The opening states the question. What follows answers it in general terms: in that school, the Five Precepts must necessarily be kept for the whole of life, hence called a lifetime precept; the Eight Precepts are for one day and one night only, hence called a day-and-night precept. What follows raises a further difficulty, and what follows that resolves it: measured against not being a lifetime precept, he should not be given the name; measured against actually possessing a day-and-night precept, he cannot be denied a name either — caught between the two, he is called an 'in-between person.' The fifty grades of full ordination extend across all seven assemblies and must all be kept for the whole of life, which is why a mere day-and-night precept does not fall among their number. If so, then what should one who has received the Eight Precepts actually be called? Answer: as the formula for reception itself says, 'pure-conduct upāsaka' — is this not already a name? The above is reckoned according to the Multi school, in which the Five and Eight Precepts are confined to a fixed term, and so fall outside the seven assemblies. If one instead takes the Tattvasiddhi school, which includes lay practitioners generally within its scope, this recipient is not outside the seven assemblies at all." [Cited from the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

The Procedural Commentary (Xingshi Chao) says: "The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: one may likewise receive one, two, or three of the precepts as one wishes, and any term, whether by day or by month, long or short, is equally valid." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

The Karman Commentary (Suiji Jiemo Zhu) says: "The Vibhāṣā says: if one receives the Eight Precepts, one should specify 'one day and one night,' so as not to confuse it with a lifetime precept. The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: the Five Precepts and Eight Precepts may be received for any term, by day or month, long or short — a year, a month, or even half a day or half a night — and receiving again to add to the term, or receiving for a shorter term than before, are both equally valid." The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "'One day and one night' — because the text on the five kinds of Three Refuges is so intertwined, this specific term must be clearly fixed, so no confusion arises. Hence, following the Multi school, it must be exactly one day and one night, admitting neither extension nor reduction. The Tattvasiddhi school's 'as one's own capacity allows' is because, in reaching out to convert ordinary people, the teaching cannot be too rigidly bound." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "The first shows that school's own strictness. What follows, based on the Tattvasiddhi treatise, shows that both precepts may be received for any length of time or number of days."

The Karman Commentary says: "The Vibhāṣā requires that one of the five assemblies confer it. The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: if no one is available, one may simply hold it in mind and speak it aloud oneself, saying, 'I now undertake the Eight Precepts' — and this, too, successfully constitutes reception." The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "That the Vibhāṣā allows any of the five assemblies to confer it means simply that they are all persons capable of spreading the Dharma. That the Tattvasiddhi treatise and the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom both permit self-ordination is not meant as the ordinary rule — hence that very text specifies 'if no one is available,' showing this exception is opened only under that condition." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses on the passage: "The Vibhāṣā fixes that reception must be from a preceptor; it says: to receive the fast one must necessarily receive it from another — and from which persons may one receive it? From any of the five assemblies. The Tattvasiddhi treatise and the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom both permit self-ordination; the text specifies this in terms of no preceptor being available, and the sense extends as well to any other impeding circumstance." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Component Two: Whether Delayed Reception Still Succeeds

The Karman Commentary says: "The Kośa says: if one has already resolved beforehand to receive the fast on this particular day, then even if one has already eaten before actually receiving it, reception still succeeds." The Commentary on Karman Procedures glosses: "This is because, observing that the delay arose from outward circumstances beyond one's own control, no mind of violating the precept has actually arisen."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "If, just as one is about to receive it, some difficulty arises preventing this, then once the difficulty has passed and one receives it afterward, this too succeeds." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "Such as being detained by a king's officers or by bandits — the mind remains open and willing even though outward circumstances obstruct it, so reception is permitted to succeed even at midday or afterward." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

Component Three: Receiving Alone to Avoid Fault

The Procedural Commentary says: "The Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts: in receiving the Eight Precepts, one should not do so in a large group — one should receive it alone." The Zichi Commentary glosses: "That the Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts forbids doing this in a large group is out of fear that people would become mixed together and the mind would fail to stay single-pointed. Speaking generally of refuge and precept, receiving it alone is best, since the mind then has nothing else to attend to, and the Dharma cannot become diffused or confused. Receiving it today in large assemblies, though not incorrect in principle, still ends up being less than ideal in practice." [Cited from the Zichi Commentary on the Xingshi Chao, fascicle 39.]

Component Four: Cutting Off Evil to Attain Purity

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "The Sūtra on the Upāsaka Precepts says: if persons of high rank habitually order others to commit evil acts, then, should they wish to receive the fast, they must first cut off and renounce this practice — only afterward does reception succeed. If they do not renounce it, reception does not succeed at all. The Treatise on Establishing Reality says: there are those who, relying on established official procedure, or compelled by superior authority, cause harm to sentient beings, and suppose themselves free of any offense — yet they still incur the offense of killing, since every condition for it is fully present." The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The first citation clarifies whether reception succeeds. 'Persons of high rank' means kings and great ministers. 'Habitually order others to commit evil acts' means carrying out killing, flogging, and the like. The next citation forestalls a possible doubt. 'Relying on established official procedure' means, as when an official administering government carries out the code of the state, or is ordered by a superior to execute or punish someone — a foolish person often supposes himself thereby free of any offense."

The Commentary on Karman Procedures says: "If one has already received the fast, and orders that a being be flogged — even if it is not carried out that very day, but only intended for the next morning — the fast is already impure in either case. To put it succinctly: if body or speech carries out any act unbecoming of proper deportment, this alone is already called 'impure.' Or if the mind gives rise to a thought of greed, hatred, or the intent to harm, though this does not technically break the fast, the fast is nonetheless not pure. And if one fails to cultivate the six recollections and the like, this too is called 'impure.'" The Jiyuan Commentary glosses: "The first shows a violation of body and speech; 'intended for the next morning' means an act already resolved upon in advance. What follows shows a violation of mind: resentment at what goes against one's own wishes is hatred, and wishing harm upon another is malice — both of the above are violations of commission. What follows that shows a violation of omission: one who has received precept must, day after day, recollect the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, the heavens, precept, and giving." [The above is all found in the Commentary on Karman Procedures, fascicle 10.]

[The above concludes the second chapter, Ordination Liturgies, within the Gate of the Precept-Dharma.]