How Mind Paints a World

Shansheng said: "World-Honored One, before the Buddhas and Tathāgatas appear in the world, what serves as precepts for the bodhisattva-mahāsattva?" "Good son, before a Buddha appears in the world, there is at that time no precept of taking the Three Refuges — there is only the wise person who seeks the path to bodhi, cultivating the ten wholesome ways. As for these ten wholesome ways, none but a Buddha is able to explain and distinguish them fully; they were spoken by Buddhas of the past, have circulated down to the present without loss or omission, and the wise receive and practice them. Good son, that sentient beings are unable to receive, uphold, and cultivate the ten wholesome ways is entirely because, in past lives, they failed to draw near to and seek instruction from a Buddha.

"Good son, every sentient being without exception has a mixed mind; because of a mixed mind there is mixed affliction; because of mixed affliction, mixed karma is created; because of mixed karma one undergoes mixed existence; because of mixed existence one receives a mixed body. Good son, once sentient beings have obtained a mixed body, they perceive mixed forms; having perceived mixed forms, an unwholesome thought arises, and this unwholesome thought is called ignorance. Because of ignorance, a seeking mind arises, called craving; what is done because of craving is called karma; because of this karma, a fruit of retribution is obtained — one who is wise is able to break this chain apart. Bound from within by affliction and from without by conditioned existence, one is thereby fettered; but once the ten wholesome ways have been cultivated, one is freed from this. This is why, when the Tathāgata first attained unsurpassed, perfect, complete awakening, he expounded the dharma of the ten wholesome ways in detail. Because of the ten wholesome ways, the world has wholesome conduct and unwholesome conduct, wholesome existence and unwholesome existence, up to and including liberation itself — and for this reason sentient beings should, with a wholehearted mind, discern and truly understand the path of the ten wholesome ways. Wherever there is wind and cloud that hold up the great waters; the palace of the asuras, the great earth, the great mountains, the hungry ghosts, the animals, the hells, the realm of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the realm of the Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Others' Transformations — all of these exist because of the ten courses of action of sentient beings. The wheel-turning sage king's four wheels — gold, silver, copper, and iron — and the seven assemblies who receive precepts in pursuit of the three kinds of bodhi likewise all come about because of the ten wholesome courses of karma. Because of these ten wholesome courses of karma, all things internal and external belonging to sentient beings, both their bodily form and their lifespan, undergo increase and decrease — and for this reason the wise should cultivate the ten wholesome path in full.

"Depending on whether sentient beings are young, in their prime, or old, and depending on the season — spring, autumn, winter, or summer — the afflictions that arise differ, each from the others; and in a small kalpa, a middling kalpa, or a great kalpa, the afflictions that arise likewise differ, each from the others. When sentient beings first cultivate the ten wholesome karmic ways, they gain an immeasurable lifespan and are furnished with form, fragrance, and flavor in full — yet because of greed, hatred, and delusion, all of this is lost. Because of these ten unwholesome courses of karma, the seasons, the years, the stars, the sun and moon, and the four elements themselves undergo change; whoever is able to observe this should be understood to be able to attain liberation. It is because of the causes and conditions of suffering that sentient beings give rise to a mind of faith; having attained faith, they are able to observe what is wholesome and what is unwholesome, and having observed in this way, they cultivate the ten wholesome ways.

"Mind and conduct operate through ten locations, and this is why they are called the ten ways: the three bodily ways are killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct; the four verbal ways are harsh speech, false speech, divisive speech, and meaningless speech; the three mental ways are envy, hatred, and wrong view. These ten unwholesome acts are, every one of them, the root of all offenses. Because sentient beings differ in realm, in mode of existence, in birth, in form, in lifespan, and in name, on account of these very differences they ought properly to be named without limit, not merely as ten. Yet of these ten matters, the three of mind are called karma but not called "way"; the seven of body and speech are both karma and way — and this is why they are named "ten." These ten courses of karma may be done by oneself, done by another, or done jointly by oneself and another, and from them one obtains the two fruits, wholesome and unwholesome — they are likewise the very causes and conditions of a sentient being's good and evil. For this reason the wise ought not even to entertain such an act in thought, let alone actually carry it out in body. If a person allows the fetters of karma and affliction free rein, know that this is to walk the ten unwholesome ways; if a person is able to break the fetters of affliction and not let them run free, this person walks the ten wholesome ways. If a person first sets up the preparatory means but had not thought it through beforehand, and then suddenly acts on the spot, this person does not incur the offense that karma properly entails. For this reason the wise should diligently cultivate the ten wholesome courses of karma; and the same holds for realizing the Four Noble Truths. If a deed was resolved upon for a set time and that time then lapses, no offense is incurred either. For this reason the wise should cultivate the ten wholesome ways — and because of these ten wholesome ways, once sentient beings have cultivated them, their lifespan and their possessions, both internal and external, increase. Because of affliction, the ten unwholesome karmas increase; in the absence of affliction, the ten wholesome karmas increase."

"Good son, each of these ten courses of karma has, within itself, three factors: first, the root act; second, the preparatory means; third, the culmination. As for the root act — if one holds the notion 'this is another,' the notion 'this is a sentient being,' or, even with a doubting mind, cuts off its life-faculty; if the body moves to make some sign, or the mouth speaks of killing — this is called the root act. Seeking out a knife, sharpening its blade, preparing poison, or fashioning a noose — this is called the preparatory means. Having killed, touching the body with one's hand, weighing and lifting it; eating the flesh oneself or giving it to another to eat; taking whatever goods are gained from it and using them, spending them, giving them away freely; feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, the heart untouched by regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Where the property genuinely belongs to another and one recognizes it as another's, whether one goes to take it oneself, sends someone else to take it, or — even with a doubting mind — moves it to another place, this is called the root act. Breaking down a wall or fence, inquiring about and reckoning up the amount, setting a ladder to scale a wall, entering a house to search for it, up to actually laying a hand on it — this is called the preparatory means. Once the goods are obtained, carrying them off and hiding them, giving them away freely, selling them, spending them, or bestowing them on others; feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, the heart untouched by regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"If a woman is bound to another, and, recognizing that she belongs to another — or even with a doubting mind — one engages in unchaste conduct with her, this is called the root act. Sending a messenger to her, going to see her with one's own eyes, exchanging tokens of good faith, touching her with the hand, or speaking soft and intimate words — this is called the preparatory means. Once the deed is done, giving her jewelry, sitting and dining together, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, the heart untouched by regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Departing before a gathering from what one actually saw, heard, or knew, and speaking falsely of it, whether at all three times or at two of them, this is called the root act. Beforehand, carefully arranging the matter in sequence, constructing the opening of one's speech, or taking up another's words, and going to that place to speak it, this is called the preparatory means. Once the deed is accomplished, receiving goods and wealth for it, giving them away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Mixed in with false speech is divisive speech, which is able to break apart harmony between people — this is called the root act. Speaking of another's faults and other unwholesome matters, telling one party that harmony with the other will surely bring something intolerable, or that breaking with them will bring something good, this is called the preparatory means. Once the harmony is broken, receiving goods and wealth for it, giving them away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Changing one's expression in anger and cursing or reviling with harsh words — this is called the root act. Hearing of another's fault, elaborating the wording of one's speech, and setting out toward that person intending to speak this harshness — this is called the preparatory means. Having reviled and cursed, then receiving goods from another for it, giving them away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Speaking of matters of desire, or words spoken at an improper time and occasion — this is called the root act. Singing, chanting, or reciting meaningless verses, fashioning them in a hundred different ways to suit whatever a person delights in, this is called the preparatory means. Having taught this to another, then receiving goods and wealth for it, giving them away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Giving rise to a covetous wish to obtain another's property — this is called the root act. Giving rise to the afflicted mind that drives this wish — this is called the preparatory means. Having acted on it and obtained the wealth, giving it away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, and going on to tell others of it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Striking or cursing another person — this is called the root act. Taking up a stick or a stone, and demanding an account of the other's supposed fault — this is called the preparatory means. Having struck the person and feeling delight in it, receiving goods and wealth for it, giving them away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination.

"Slandering the reality of karma, of cause and effect, of the noble truths, or of sages and worthy persons — this is called the root act. Reading, reciting, copying out, and giving one's faith to heterodox writings, praising and extolling them, this is called the preparatory means. Having taken them up, expounding and explaining them to others in detail, so as to increase their wrong view; receiving ill-gotten wealth for it, giving it away freely, feeling joy and pleasure in it, without shame or remorse, not giving rise to regret, praising oneself for it and giving rise to great arrogance — this is called the culmination."

"There are also cases where a person, in a single moment, commits two of the ten courses of karma at once — false speech together with divisive speech; or three at once — false speech, divisive speech, and harsh speech; or, again, three others — wrong view, harsh speech, and false speech. And when such speech is uttered, it is itself meaningless speech, so that four are committed at once. Ill will and covetousness, however, cannot occur in the very same moment; the remaining eight may. How can they occur in the same moment? Consider the case where all six sense-organs send out their messengers at once, and one commits two acts oneself: first, committing sexual misconduct with another man's wife; second, holding the view that there is no fruit of karma — having first resolved on this beforehand, both acts are incurred in that single moment. As for these ten unwholesome acts: some result in manifest form without latent form; some result in both manifest and latent form. Where there is no preparatory means and no culmination, one obtains manifest form only, without latent form; where there is elaborate preparation and culmination, one obtains both manifest and latent form. These ten courses of karma are, moreover, some light and some heavy: killing one's father or mother, or a pratyekabuddha; stealing property belonging to the Three Jewels; committing unchaste conduct with one's own birth-mother or with a nun who is an arahant; or speaking falsely so as to cause a schism in the saṅgha — these are called heavy.

"Good son, each of these ten courses of karma is, moreover, of three kinds: arising from greed, arising from hatred, and arising from delusion. If one takes life for the sake of profit, this is called arising from greed; if one kills an enemy, this is called arising from hatred; if one kills one's own aged father or mother, this is called arising from delusion. Plundering and stealing another's wealth is likewise of three kinds: seizing another's property by force for the sake of oneself, one's spouse and children, or one's dependents, out of greed for it, is called arising from greed; stealing from an enemy is called arising from hatred; plundering from someone of low station is called arising from delusion. Sexual misconduct is likewise threefold: engaging in unchaste conduct for one's own pleasure is called arising from greed; violating the wife or family of an enemy is called arising from hatred; committing unchaste conduct with one's own birth-mother is called arising from delusion. False speech is of three kinds: speaking falsely for profit and one's own pleasure is called arising from greed; speaking falsely in order to destroy an enemy is called arising from hatred; speaking falsely out of fear that another might otherwise die is called arising from delusion. Divisive speech is of three kinds: for the sake of profit, this is called arising from greed; to destroy an enemy, this is called arising from hatred; breaking apart a harmonious assembly given to wrong views is called arising from delusion. Harsh speech is of three kinds: cursing one's wife and children for the sake of profit is called arising from greed; deliberately speaking of hateful matters to an enemy is called arising from hatred; speaking of the past faults of another's forebears is called arising from delusion. Idle speech is likewise threefold: singing and clamoring for the sake of pleasure is called arising from greed; singing and clamoring in order to outdo another is called arising from hatred; singing and clamoring so as to increase wrong view is called arising from delusion. What arises from greed is called envy; what arises from hatred is called ill will; what arises from delusion is called wrong view.

"Once the ten wholesome ways have been cultivated, each single one of them yields three kinds of liberation. These ten unwholesome karmas will certainly bring the fruit of rebirth in hell, or else as a hungry ghost or an animal; their remaining fruit, when the retribution ripens as a human birth, is a shortened lifespan, poverty and want, an unchaste and unreliable spouse, words that others do not believe or accept, no close or affectionate relations, being constantly slandered, ears that from birth never hear anything good spoken; it can even cause the four great elements of the outer world to decline and fail, so that nothing is genuine and real — harsh winds and violent storms, rot and stench and ruin, uneven ground, an absence of the seven treasures, an abundance of stone, sand, thorn, and bramble, seasons that shift out of their proper order with no fixed regularity, and fruit that is scant, unripe, and lacking in flavor. Anyone wishing to overturn all such things should, with a wholehearted mind, cultivate the ten wholesome ways. As for this dharma of the ten wholesome ways: it is present in full in the three continents; in some cases it is bound up with formal precepts, in others not. In the northern continent of Uttarakuru there are only four of these present; in hell there are five; among hungry ghosts, animals, and the gods, all ten are present, but not bound up with formal precepts; in the six heavens of the desire realm there is no preparatory means at all — only the root act and the culmination are present."

"Now, a course of karma is obtained within a single thought-moment. If the killer and the one to be killed die together, then the root fruit of that karma is not obtained. If elaborate preparation is made but the deed in the end does not succeed, only the preparatory means is obtained, not the root act. If, once the preparation is made, the killing is then actually accomplished, the root offense is obtained. If, having killed, one does not go on to complete the culmination, then no offense of latent force is incurred. If the killer himself dies in the very thought-moment of the act, while the one to be killed dies only in a subsequent thought-moment, the killer does not obtain the root karmic offense. If one sends another to do the killing, the one who carries it out obtains the offense of manifest act; the one who gave the verbal order obtains the offense of latent force; and if the order was given with a cursing, hateful voice, that person obtains both offenses together. If, having killed, the mind afterward turns wholesome, or becomes neutral, one still obtains both the offense of manifest act and of latent force.

"Suppose someone objects: 'The past has already ceased, the future has not yet arisen, and the present does not abide — so how can this be called killing? In a single thought-moment nothing is actually killed, not even a single mote of dust is destroyed; and if it cannot be done in one moment, it cannot be accumulated into many moments either — so how can one speak of killing at all?' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because even though, in the present single thought-moment, nothing is literally killed, that moment still blocks the arising of the future continuity of the victim's life — and it is for this reason that it is properly called killing. For this same reason, one cannot conclude that because no killing is seen to occur at any single point, killing therefore occurs nowhere at all. There are cases where a person is stabbed in the hand and dies at once, and cases where a foot is severed yet life continues intact — but this is not so of the head: whether stabbed or severed, death follows either way. Whenever an act performed results in a grave offense, this is called a course of karma; the three mental acts are obtained by oneself alone, while the seven acts of body and speech may be obtained by oneself or by another. Where there is no manifest act, there is likewise no latent force.

"Suppose someone objects: 'The three bodily acts of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct have both manifest act and latent force, but this is not so for verbal acts.' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because if verbal karma had manifest act but no latent force, then one who gives the verbal order to kill would incur no offense — yet this is not so; therefore verbal karma must likewise have both manifest act and latent force. The mind, however, is different: because a sage or worthy person, in giving instruction, does not thereby incur this kind of offense. And for what reason are they called 'manifest act' and 'latent force' at all? Because this karma casts one down into the three lower realms, because it causes a short lifespan when born among humans, and because it causes the six sense-faculties to suffer constantly; the secondary fruits it brings resemble the root offense, though the primary fruit of the root act may or may not resemble it precisely. When the retribution actually ripens, it is undergone in the hell of Repeated Revival, the Black-Rope Hell, or as a hungry ghost, an animal, or in the human realm — three of these being where the secondary fruit is received. If, in preparing to kill one person, once the preparation is made, two people happen to die, one should know that only with respect to the person originally intended is the manifest act and latent force obtained.

"Suppose someone objects: 'Physical form is karmically neutral, and life itself is karmically neutral — being neutral in this way, how can killing incur the offense of killing at all?' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because this body and this life are the very vessel of the wholesome or unwholesome mind; to destroy this vessel is to block the arising of wholesome or unwholesome mind in the future — and it is for this reason that an offense is incurred. If a king orders a killing and his attending minister praises the order as good, the king and the minister incur an identical offense; and the same holds for hunting. If a person is on the very verge of death, with only a single thought-moment of life remaining, and one then strikes the fatal blow, the offense of killing is incurred; but if life has already been exhausted before the blow falls, no offense of killing is incurred. If one first forms the intention merely to strike or beat someone, and then, in the act of striking, the person actually dies, no offense of killing is incurred. If one gives poison to a pregnant woman, or destroys the embryo in its earliest stage, this person obtains both the offense of manifest act and of latent force. One who injures only oneself does not incur the offense of killing. Why not? Because no notion of 'another being' arises, because there is no mind of hatred involved, and because the cause and condition are not of self acting upon another.

"Suppose someone objects: 'If the offense of killing is incurred regardless of whether the mind is wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral — just as fire burns and poison kills anyone who touches or ingests it, whether their mind is wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral' — this objection does not hold. Why not? Because there are people in the world who grasp fire and are not burned, who ingest poison and do not die; and in the same way, killing that is not done with a malicious mind does not incur the offense of killing — as is the case with physicians.

"Suppose someone objects: 'The sage Vasu taught that killing a person by incantation, or killing a sheep to sacrifice to the gods, incurs no offense of killing.' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because another's life is thereby cut off, and this itself is a cause and condition rooted in delusion. If one sees a person die and one's heart rejoices at it, know that this person obtains the offense of culmination; and the same holds for one who, seeing another commit a killing, rejoices in his heart and rewards the killer with wealth. If one sends another to carry out a killing, and the one who receives the order, upon arriving, goes on to torment the victim with all manner of cruelty before finally killing them, then the one who gave the verbal order obtains only the offense of manifest act, while the one who received the order and carried it out obtains both offenses together, manifest act and latent force."

"If one gives rise to a malicious mind and seizes another's property, one likewise obtains both offense of manifest act and of latent force. Taking something on a recurring basis, taking something entrusted for safekeeping, or taking something through fraudulent trade all likewise incur the offense of theft. If one does not take the thing oneself, does not covet it, does not use it, but merely instructs another to take it, one still obtains both offenses. If, intending to steal gold, one takes it but discovers outside that it is actually silver, and then puts it back in its original place, no offense of theft is incurred. If, intending to steal gold, one obtains it, but then, reflecting on impermanence, one's heart fills with regret, and one wishes to return it to its owner but is afraid to do so, and by some other means manages to return the stolen goods, then even though the goods left their original place, no offense of theft is incurred. As for a servant's property: if one had from the start regarded it as held jointly with the master, but later gives rise to a covetous thought and simply takes the master's property, and having taken it becomes anxious and hides it away, yet still thinks of it as jointly held without real distinction, then even though the goods left their original place, no offense of theft is incurred. If a person traveling the road is robbed by bandits, and upon reaching a village the village headman asks, 'What did you lose? I will make it good to you,' and the traveler, in naming what was lost, claims more than what was actually lost and so takes another's property, this incurs the offense of theft. If someone resolves to give two robes to another, and the recipient takes only one, saying he has no need of two, and the giver then simply keeps the remaining robe for himself, this incurs the offense of theft. If a person resolves to offer a dwelling, bedding, medicine, or other necessities of life to one particular monk, but before the gift is actually given, hears that an eminent teacher has arrived from elsewhere and redirects the offering to him instead, this incurs the offense of theft. If one takes the property of a monk who has died, from whom is the offense incurred? If the formal saṅgha procedure has already been carried out, the offense is incurred against the saṅgha that carried out that procedure; if it has not yet been carried out, the offense is incurred against the saṅgha of the ten directions; if the monk, at the point of death, had already designated where his property should go, the offense is incurred in relation to that designated recipient. If one steals property belonging to the Buddha, the offense is incurred against the caretaker in charge of the stūpa. If property, grain, fruit, clothing, or other necessities are simply carried off and lost in a flash flood, and someone then takes them, no offense is incurred.

"Engaging in intercourse at an improper time, in an improper place, with an improper partner — with a virgin, with another's wife, or even with one's own wife under improper conditions — this is called sexual misconduct. Only in the three continents does the offense of sexual misconduct exist; in Uttarakuru it does not. Approaching an animal, a woman already violated or otherwise compromised, a woman belonging to the saṅgha, a woman in prison, a fugitive woman, a teacher's wife, or a renunciant — nearness to any such person constitutes sexual misconduct. A renunciant belongs to no one in particular — so from whom is the offense then incurred? It is incurred in relation to the renunciant's own relatives, or in relation to the ruler. In times of calamity, of chaos, when a tyrannical king reigns, or in a time of terror, if a wife or concubine is made to leave the household and shave her head to become a renunciant, and one then approaches her still, this incurs the offense of sexual misconduct. Engaging in intercourse through any of the three improper orifices likewise incurs the offense. Whether by oneself or with another, engaging in unchaste conduct by the roadside, beside a stūpa, beside a shrine, or in a place of public assembly incurs the offense of sexual misconduct. If a woman is under the protection of her parents, brothers, or the king; or if she has already made an appointment with someone else, already promised herself to someone else, already received payment, or already accepted an invitation of betrothal; or even with a wooden or clay image, a painted image, or a corpse — engaging in unchaste conduct with any such incurs the offense of sexual misconduct. Whether with one's own spouse but under the mistaken notion that she belongs to another, or with another's spouse under the mistaken notion that she is one's own, this too is called sexual misconduct; and such misconduct likewise has degrees of severity — from a heavier affliction comes a heavier offense, from a lighter affliction a lighter offense.

"Whether with a doubting mind or without one, whether concerning what one has seen, heard, sensed, or known, whether asked or unasked, speaking of it in a way that differs from how it actually happened is called false speech; claiming to have seen, heard, sensed, or known something one did not actually see, hear, sense, or know is likewise false speech, though not complete in every respect. Openly contradicting oneself, with nothing concealed, is not false speech. Speaking in a foreign or unintelligible tongue that the listener cannot understand is also false speech, though not complete in every respect. Speaking in a garbled way, shouting loudly without being intelligible, or saying something the listener does not understand is likewise false speech, though not complete in every respect. Divisive speech and harsh speech, whether or not they succeed in actually damaging the other person's relationships, still incur the offense once spoken; and the same is true of idle speech. These seven are both 'way' and 'karma' together; the remaining three are karma but not 'way.' Why is that? Because they are not themselves carried out in action, while the seven obstruct both self and other and thereby incur a grave offense."

"Suppose someone objects: 'All the fine particles that make up any phenomenon abide only in sequence, perishing thought-moment by thought-moment; once perished, there is nothing that abides — and if nothing abides, there cannot even be a manifest act, let alone a latent force.' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because worldly phenomena do have causes and do have effects — they are never without cause and without effect. It is like a face reflected in water or in a mirror: the image appears, yet apart from the face there is no image. The same holds for manifest karmic action: it arises from the body's action, and from this karmic act, latent force in turn comes forth — just as the image appears in water or in a mirror. Just as, when a person's mind gives rise to malice, an unwholesome appearance shows in the face, and when the mind gives rise to goodness, a wholesome appearance shows, so it is likewise with manifest act and latent force: wholesome karma yields a fine and excellent form, unwholesome karma a coarse and unwholesome one. If it is objected that because everything perishes moment by moment there can be no manifest act or latent force at all, recall the earlier similes of the lamp-flame and the river: though they perish moment by moment, it is precisely because of the two truths that manifest act and latent force can still meaningfully be spoken of. Though the fine particles proceed only in sequence without truly abiding, this still does not violate the conventional truth — for it is exactly by their sequential succession that they are named at all.

"Killing one's father, mother, or an arahant incurs an immeasurable offense; though father, mother, an arahant, and any other person are, in terms of the bare aggregates, elements, and sense-bases, no different from one another, the offense is heavier in these cases because they are fields of merit and fields of requiting kindness. Just as it is said that two written characters forming a single word cannot be uttered in the very same instant, and yet, unless these two characters are joined together, their meaning cannot be expressed at all — so, though each moment perishes, false speech, likewise built up moment by moment, is still properly called false speech, without violating the conventional truth. It is like shooting an arrow: though each moment of its motion perishes, still, because of the force carried in the fine particles of the bodily act, the arrow reaches its target or fails to reach it — so it is with manifest act and latent force. It is like a spinning top: though each moment perishes, still, because of the force carried in the fine particles of the bodily act, it continues to turn — so it is with manifest act and latent force. It is like a whirling firebrand: though each moment perishes, still, because of the force carried in the fine particles of the bodily act, the fire forms a complete circle. The mind at the moment the intention first arises differs from the mind during the preparatory means, which differs again from the mind at the moment of the act itself, which differs again from the mind at the moment of speaking of it — and it is because these many conditions come together that the act is properly called 'manifest'; and it is from this manifest act, as its cause and condition, that latent force is then produced. Just as outward bearing differs from moment to moment while the mind behind it likewise differs, yet cannot be destroyed — this indestructible residue is called latent force. Once latent force has been produced from this manifest act, then regardless of whether the mind afterward turns wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral, the karma already performed suffers no loss or leakage — and this is why it is called latent, or unmanifest, force. If the body acts wholesomely while speech acts unwholesomely, one should know that this person obtains a mixed fruit; but if the body's wholesome karma has both manifest act and latent force, while speech's unwholesome karma has only manifest act and no latent force, one should know that this person obtains only the wholesome fruit, not the unwholesome one. This is why the sutras speak of seven kinds of karma as having both manifest act and latent force. It is like a person gravely ill, who requires many medicines combined together to be cured — lacking even one ingredient, the treatment fails, because the illness is so severe. All sentient beings are exactly the same: because they are furnished with every kind of unwholesome tendency, they require the full array of precepts together to be cured — lacking even a single precept, the cure cannot be completed."

"Good son, the offenses sentient beings commit are, broadly speaking, of two kinds: those committed under an evil vow, and those committed with no vow at all. A person bound by an evil vow, even if he kills only a single sheep, incurs the offense of killing continuously, even during the times he is not actually killing. Why is that? Because he has already made his vow in advance. A person with no such vow, even if he kills a thousand creatures, incurs the offense only at the moment of killing, and incurs nothing when not killing. Why is that? Because he has made no such vow. For this reason, in every wholesome and unwholesome dharma, the mind is the root. Because the mind is the root, it is said that monks commit offenses in two ways — by body and by speech — and never merely by mind alone. As for precepts of this kind, if the proper time is not complete, or the proper components are not complete, the precept is not obtained. It is like starting a fire by friction: one needs the fire-drill, sufficient force, and dry tinder together before fire results — lacking even one of these, no fire results; and precepts are exactly the same. Whether such a precept is gained, relinquished, upheld, or broken all depends on the mind; the Tathāgata, understanding the nature of all dharmas completely and clearly, established these rules on that basis.

"If, moreover, a person, through the power of wholesome reflection, simply refrains from committing any evil, this is called 'lawful discipline' as a matter of conduct; but only when it is actually received from another is it properly called 'receiving precepts.' If merit could be obtained from mere restraint apart from formally receiving a precept, then every fierce animal — lions, tigers, wolves — ought to obtain merit for it, yet in fact they do not. For this reason, one who receives a wholesome vow obtains immeasurable merit, and one who takes up an evil vow obtains immeasurable offense. This is why the sutras speak of 'undisciplined conduct': first, raising sheep for slaughter; second, raising chickens for slaughter; third, raising pigs for slaughter; fourth, angling for fish; fifth, netting fish; sixth, slaughtering cattle; seventh, serving as a prison warden; eighth, keeping hunting dogs; ninth, setting long snares; tenth, working as a hunter; eleventh, using incantations against dragons; twelfth, killing people; thirteenth, working as a bandit; fourteenth, habitual divisive speech; fifteenth, inflicting cruel floggings, shackles, head-clamps, iron nails, or burning upon others. Kings and ministers who betray a trust and show no gratitude; village headmen of cruel disposition who administer taxes with cruelty; monks who break the precepts with a mind devoid of any shame or remorse — all such people likewise have no true discipline; though what they do may not each individually be reckoned among the ten unwholesome courses of karma, they nonetheless incur a grave offense. Why is that? Because they persist in it for their entire lives. Matters such as these, if no vow is made and nothing is formally received from another, do not become fully established as 'undisciplined conduct.' Such an evil vow is relinquished on four occasions: first, when one acquires a second sexual characteristic; second, at the end of one's life; third, upon receiving a wholesome precept; fourth, upon severing the fetter of desire."

"Suppose someone objects: 'Just as a wholesome vow requires full completeness, so too must an evil vow.' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because an evil vow is easily obtained — obtained through a single cause and condition, namely, the making of an oath. A wholesome vow is not like this; it requires five preparatory conditions, namely, the five spiritual faculties, and for this reason it is difficult to obtain; and precisely because it is difficult to obtain, it must be received in its full completeness. Suppose someone objects: 'The upāsaka precepts contain no explicit prohibition of idle speech, divisive speech, or harsh speech, and so the upāsaka precepts, the eight precepts of the fasting rite, and the precepts of novices and monks are not received in full completeness.' This objection does not hold. Why not? Because in receiving the precepts I am, even now, undertaking to keep my speech pure. Suppose someone claims, 'I receive the five precepts in order to purify body, speech, and mind' — yet if the mind itself is not pure, one should know that this person does not actually obtain the precepts in full. It is like a person who has taken up an evil vow: even during a period when he does not actually kill, this person continuously bears the completed evil vow; and it is the same for a monk who breaks the precepts. Why is that? Because once precepts have been received and upheld, each single precept carries with it many kinds of karma and many kinds of fruit. Sentient beings are without limit, and so precepts are likewise without limit; objects of conduct are without limit, and so precepts are likewise without limit. Both wholesome and unwholesome vows are, moreover, of three grades: superior, middling, and inferior. If one has not formally taken up an evil vow, then even committing many offenses does not constitute 'undisciplined conduct' in this technical sense. If someone raises the objection, 'Why are the five precepts received for the whole of one's life, while the eight precepts of the fasting rite are received only for a single day and night?' — one should answer: 'The Tathāgata, understanding the nature of all dharmas thoroughly and without any obstruction, taught it to be so for good reason.'"

"Good son, there are, broadly speaking, two kinds of field of merit in the world: the field of virtue, and the field of requiting kindness. To destroy these two fields is what is called the five heinous offenses. These five heinous offenses depend on three conditions: first, an extremely malicious mind; second, failing to recognize the merit involved; third, failing to see the true fruit that will result. If a person, under a mistaken notion, kills someone believing them to be an arahant when they are not, no heinous offense is incurred; and the same holds for parents. If a person, lacking any sense of shame or remorse, giving no thought to requiting kindness, harboring no respect at all, undertakes only the preparatory means but not the root act itself, though this is not the heinous offense proper, it still brings a grave retribution. Because parents instruct their children well, because they give rise to tender love, because they are able to endure hardship for their children's sake, because they do what is difficult to do, and because they undergo great suffering in raising a child — for these reasons parents are called the field of requiting kindness. If a person kills his own parents, then even if he afterward cultivates wholesome deeds, this later goodness brings no fruit of reward. This is why I say: even in the shade of a tree under which one has briefly rested, one should take care not to break its branches or damage its flowers and leaves.

"Good son, after my final nirvana, there will be disciples who will teach as follows: 'If, under a mistaken notion, or believing the victim to be someone else, one kills one's own parent, no heinous offense is incurred' — this is the position of the Dharmagupta school. Others will teach: 'Even if one kills one's parent under a mistaken notion, the heinous offense is still incurred' — this is the position of the Mahīśāsaka school. Still others will teach: 'Whether under a mistaken notion or believing the victim to be someone else, killing one's parent always incurs the heinous offense' — this is the position of the Sarvāstivāda school. Why is the correct position what it is? Because in worldly truth what is real can be trusted as real: if the parent is genuinely present and the perception of them as parent never wavers, and one kills with a malicious mind, the heinous offense is thereby incurred. But if the victim is in fact one's parent, yet one holds no notion at all that this is one's parent, and no malicious mind arises, then even though the parent dies, no heinous offense is incurred. Why not? Because four conditions together are required before the heinous offense is incurred: first, that the victim genuinely is one's parent and one holds the notion that this is one's parent; second, a malicious mind; third, the mind of forsaking; fourth, holding the notion that this is a sentient being. Only when all four conditions are present is the heinous offense fully constituted; lacking any one of them, it is not constituted. If, out of compassion, out of respect, in order to receive some teaching, out of fear, or for the sake of reputation, one supplies the means of death without personally striking the fatal blow, the heinous offense is nevertheless incurred. If one is compelled by another to kill one's own parent and does so weeping and grieving all the while, the offense in this case — at its beginning, its middle, and its completion — is comparatively light. If one intends to kill one's parent but by mistake strikes another person instead, no heinous offense is incurred; and the same holds in reverse, if one intends to kill another but by mistake strikes one's parent. If, intending to kill one's mother, one mistakenly kills someone who merely resembles her, and then, having hidden the knife, later strikes one's actual mother as well, no heinous offense is incurred for that second blow. If the mother mistook her own identity in some way that led to the confusion while the son's killing was likewise founded on that same confusion, only the ordinary offense of killing is incurred, not the heinous offense. Among these five heinous offenses, killing one's father is the lighter, killing one's mother the heavier; killing an arahant is heavier still than killing one's mother; drawing a Buddha's blood is heavier than killing an arahant; and causing a schism in the saṅgha is heavier still than drawing a Buddha's blood.

"There are cases where the object is grave but the intention slight; where the object is slight but the intention grave; where both object and intention are grave; and where both are slight. Object grave, intention slight: as when one kills one's parent without a truly malicious mind. Object slight, intention grave: as when one kills an animal with a truly malicious mind. Object grave, intention grave: killing one's own birth-mother with an extremely malicious mind. Object slight, intention slight: killing an animal with only a mild mind. In unwholesome karma of this kind, sometimes the preparatory means is grave while the root act and culmination are light; sometimes the preparatory means and root act are light while the culmination is grave; sometimes the preparatory means and root act are grave while the culmination is light; and sometimes the root act alone is light while the preparatory means and culmination are grave. The object may be one and the same, and yet, because of the varying force of the mind behind it, the resulting fruit is correspondingly light or grave."

"Good son, if someone intends to offer food to me, and before it is given diverts it instead to a starving dog, I still praise such a person as a great donor. Whether or not the recipient is a field of merit, if one gives without discriminating in one's mind, one obtains immeasurable merit — because the mind itself is wholesome and pure. Karma is of four kinds: karma with retribution in the present life; karma with retribution in the next life; karma with retribution in a later life; and karma with no retribution at all. Karma is also of four kinds in another sense: karma whose time is fixed but whose fruit is not fixed; karma whose fruit is fixed but whose time is not necessarily fixed; karma whose time and fruit are both fixed; and karma whose time and fruit are both unfixed. 'Fixed time' means the present life, the next life, or a life further in the future. If the time is unfixed, the fruit too is unfixed, and such karma can be altered. If the fruit is fixed such that it ought to be received in some future life, this karma can, through the force of a wholesome mind and wisdom, be altered so as to be received in the present life instead. Even a fixed unwholesome fruit can be lightened in this way. And for what reason does a karmic fruit come to be fixed at all? Because the act was done repeatedly without regret, done with focused intent, done with delight and enjoyment, done under a formal vow, and followed afterward by rejoicing — for these reasons the fruit of that karma becomes fixed. Apart from these conditions, karma is generally unfixed. Sentient beings' actions vary in weight and in how near or distant their ripening is, and they are received sooner or later according to their respective causes and conditions. One who cultivates the body, cultivates precepts, cultivates the mind, and cultivates wisdom, and who thereby knows for certain that good and evil will bring their respective fruits, is able to convert a heavy karma into a light one, so that even the light residue is not received at all. If one meets a field of merit, encounters a good spiritual friend, and cultivates the path and wholesome deeds, one is able to convert a heavy offense that would otherwise ripen in a future life into something lightly experienced in the present life instead. If a person possesses the full range of karma belonging to the desire realm and attains the fruit of non-returner, he is able to convert future karma so that it is experienced in the present instead; and the same holds for one who attains the fruit of arahantship.

"Good son, if a wise person is able to cultivate the body, cultivate precepts, cultivate the mind, and cultivate wisdom, this person is able to break apart even the gravest karma — just as the medicine agada, or a mantra, or a wonder-jewel that removes poison, can break apart even the deadliest venom. If, in committing even a minor offense, the initial preparatory means is light but the eventual culmination is grave, this shows a person who has not cultivated body, precepts, mind, and wisdom, and who thereby turns something light into something grave. When sentient beings commit one, two, or any number of such acts, some are done incompletely and some completely. Thinking the act through beforehand and then carrying it out is called 'complete'; acting suddenly without any prior thought is called 'incomplete.' There is, further, incomplete action where, once the deed is done, its fruit remains unfixed, as against complete action where, once the deed is done, its fruit is certain to be received. There is incomplete action where the fruit, though fixed, has an unfixed timing, as against complete action where both timing and fruit are fixed. There is incomplete action performed by one who upholds the precepts and holds right view, as against complete action performed by one who has broken the precepts and holds wrong view. There is incomplete action performed by one who has faith in cause and effect, as against complete action performed by one who has no such faith. There is incomplete action where, at the time of committing the evil, wholesome influences still surround the person, as against complete action where, at that same time, only unwholesome influences surround him. There is incomplete action where, though many evils are committed, the retribution is received within the human realm, as against complete action where evil committed as a human brings retribution in hell. There is incomplete action performed with a mind of right mindfulness present, as against complete action performed with no such mindfulness at all. There is incomplete action followed by regret at all three times, as against complete action followed by no regret at any of the three times. Exactly the same distinctions apply to wholesome action as to unwholesome. And it is precisely because of this distinction between complete and incomplete action that a small act can yield a great fruit, and a great act a small one."

"A single intention shapes the body: once the body is fully formed, countless further intentions follow — but the very first intention that shapes the body is itself wholesome. Once the body is formed, it obtains two kinds of fruit thereafter, mixed wholesome and unwholesome — this holds for both the human and the heavenly realms alike. Beings in hell shape their bodies with an unwholesome initial intention, and once the body is formed, it remains uniformly unwholesome thereafter. Hungry ghosts and animals likewise shape their bodies with an unwholesome initial intention, but once formed, their subsequent experience is mixed, wholesome and unwholesome. The intermediate-state being between death and rebirth shapes its body with a mixture of wholesome and unwholesome intention, and once formed, receives a correspondingly mixed retribution, wholesome and unwholesome together — and this mixed retribution continues from the earliest embryonic stage all the way to old age. This is why the sutras speak of four kinds of karma: black karma with black retribution; white karma with white retribution; mixed karma with mixed retribution; and karma neither black nor white, with no retribution at all. Black karma with black retribution refers to hell; white karma with white retribution refers to the form-realm heavens; mixed karma with mixed retribution refers to the desire-realm heavens, the human realm, animals, and hungry ghosts; and karma neither black nor white, with no retribution, refers to the undefiled path. Good son, if a person does not understand these causes and conditions of karma, he wanders through birth and death for countless ages. Why is that? Because one who does not understand these causal conditions of karma, even if born into the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception with a lifespan of eighty thousand great kalpas, will, once that merit is exhausted, still fall back down into the three lower realms.

"Good son, of all things that paint and mold, none surpasses the mind: the mind paints affliction, affliction paints karma, and karma in turn paints the body. Because of greed as its cause and condition, one's form and voice become fine and beautiful, and one's bearing becomes measured and composed; because of hatred as its cause and condition, one's form and voice become coarse and unpleasant, and one's bearing becomes abrupt and violent — and delusion works exactly the same way as hatred. In countless world-systems, the hundred and thirty-six hells, the countless realms of animals, and the countless realms of hungry ghosts all come about because of karma; and the human and heavenly realms are exactly the same. The countless sentient beings who attain liberation likewise do so because of karma."

"Good son, the ten wholesome ways involve three functions: first, they are able to block affliction; second, they are able to produce a wholesome mind; third, they are able to strengthen precepts. This is like a remedy for poison, which likewise has three components: the medicine agada, a protective mantra, and a genuine treasure-gem. If a person is skilled in cultivating vigilant, non-heedless conduct, fully endowed with right mindfulness, and able to discern wholesome from unwholesome, know that such a person will certainly be able to cultivate the ten wholesome courses of karma; if a person is given over to heedlessness, without any sense of shame or remorse and without faith, know that such a person will certainly commit the ten unwholesome courses of karma. These ten courses of karma also involve three stages: the preparatory means, the root act, and the culmination. If a person diligently pays reverence and makes offerings to parents, teachers, preceptors, and persons of virtue, greeting them first with respectful inquiry and speaking to them gently, this is the preparatory means; if, once the act is done, the person continues to hold it in mind with joy and no regret, this is the culmination; and giving one's whole attention to the act at the moment it is performed is the root act. Good son, these ten courses of karma are, moreover, of three grades — superior, middling, and inferior — and these grades can combine unevenly: the preparatory means may be superior while the root act is middling and the culmination inferior; or the preparatory means middling, the root act superior, and the culmination inferior; or the preparatory means inferior, the root act superior, and the culmination middling. These ten courses of karma are surrounded, so to speak, by three factors on either side: freedom from greed, hatred, and delusion on the wholesome side, and the presence of greed, hatred, and delusion on the unwholesome side. These ten courses of karma also divide into conduct shared in common with non-Buddhist ethical systems, and conduct not shared in common. A precept-vow is relinquished on six occasions: first, when the roots of goodness are cut off; second, when one acquires a second sexual characteristic; third, at the end of one's life; fourth, upon taking up an evil vow; fifth, upon formally relinquishing the precept; sixth, upon leaving behind the body of the desire realm.

"Suppose someone claims that a precept is lost the moment the Buddhadharma itself disappears from the world. This is not so. Why not? Because once a precept has been received it is not lost in this way, and if it was never received it was never obtained to begin with. Cutting off unwholesome conduct of body, speech, and mind is called 'precept as restraint'; the four root dhyānas together with the four preliminary approaches to them are called 'concentration-associated precept'; the four root dhyānas together with the preliminary approach to the first dhyāna alone, when free of outflows, are called 'undefiled precept.' Never again committing evil, life after life, once this body is relinquished, is called 'unmanifest precept.' Guarding and restraining the sense faculties, cultivating right mindfulness, and not giving way to heedlessness with respect to what is seen, heard, sensed, or known — form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental object — is called 'sense-restraining precept.' Why is any of this called 'precept' at all? Because 'precept' means restraint: it is able to restrain every kind of unwholesome dharma, and so it is called restraint. Precept is also called 'narrow confinement': though unwholesome dharmas exist, its very nature will not admit them, and so it is called confinement. Precept is also called 'coolness': it blocks the heat of affliction and does not let it enter, and so it is called coolness. Precept is also called 'ascent': it is able to raise one up to the heavens, and further up to the unsurpassed path, and so it is called ascent. Precept is also called 'training': it trains one in subduing the mind and in the faculties of wisdom, and so it is called training. Good son, there are times when a person possesses only a single precept, namely the prātimokṣa precept; or possesses two, adding the concentration-associated precept; or three, adding the undefiled precept; or four, adding the sense-restraining precept; or five, adding the unmanifest precept. Good son, the prātimokṣa precept is obtained only in the present; the concentration-associated precept may be obtained across all three times. Good son, if a person, at the time of receiving the precepts, is able with a wholehearted mind to contemplate the faults of birth and death and the merit of liberation, and receives them with a joyful mind of faith, this person obtains both manifest and unmanifest precept together. Such a precept lasts exactly as long as the person's life — a long life obtains it for long, a short life obtains it for a shorter time. This unmanifest precept is relinquished for three reasons: because of insufficient solemnity in receiving it, because the mind grows lax and lets it go, and because the act of receiving it was not firmly resolved. There are, correspondingly, three reasons it is not relinquished: because of an underlying vow behind it, because the karmic act was firmly resolved, and because the mind remains wholehearted and unheedless.

"Good son, apart from the ten wholesome and ten unwholesome courses of karma and the wholesome and unwholesome vows already described, there remain further wholesome and unwholesome dharmas not covered by 'karma' or 'precept' in this technical sense. These wholesome and unwholesome dharmas likewise have manifest and unmanifest aspects. Some people possess both manifest and unmanifest together: while a wholesome act is presently being performed and not yet relinquished, both manifest and unmanifest are present together; in the very next thought-moment, the manifest and unmanifest of that now-past act are both established; and once the act has fully receded into the past, only the unmanifest remains, with no manifest aspect left at all. If a person has received the precepts, yet still commits some unwholesome act, this person, in the present life, establishes two things simultaneously: the unwholesome dharma with its manifest aspect, and the wholesome precept with its unmanifest aspect. This manifest and unmanifest pairing is relinquished for two reasons: because what was offered is used up, or because the mind relinquishes its wholesome resolve. The manifest aspect is established across two times, past and present; the unmanifest aspect across all three times. Concentration-associated precept is relinquished for two reasons: at the time of falling back from concentration, and at the time the roots of goodness are cut off — and, described differently, at three times: at the relinquishing of the body, at falling back, and at rising to a higher level. Undefiled precept is relinquished at three times: at falling back, at the moment one's faculties turn from dull to sharp, and at the attainment of a higher fruit. Wholesome karma of mind is lost all at once, namely at the moment of falling back after having ascended; wholesome karma of body, speech, and mind together are all lost at once at the moment the roots of goodness are cut off. Good son, one who attains the prātimokṣa precept, the concentration-associated precept, the undefiled precept, and the sense-restraining precept together, this person understands the ten courses of karma with total clarity."

"Good son, because of the ten courses of karma, the lifespans of sentient beings both increase and decrease: at their least, lifespan is ten years; at their greatest, it extends to an immeasurable number of years. In the northern continent of Uttarakuru, the fixed lifespan is a thousand years; in this continent it is a hundred years; in the eastern and western continents it is two hundred and fifty years; the lifespans native to the northern continent are boundless, and so too are those of the other continents in their own way. The Four Heavenly Kings have a lifespan of nine million years, though this too is not fixed, just as in the three continents. The Heaven of the Thirty-Three has a lifespan of eighteen million years, also not fixed. The Yāma Heaven above has a lifespan of thirty-six million years, also not fixed. Tuṣita Heaven has a lifespan of seventy-two million years; apart from a bodhisattva in his final birth, every other being's lifespan there is likewise not fixed. The Heaven of Delight in Transformation has a lifespan of a hundred and forty-four million years, also not fixed. The Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Others' Transformations has a lifespan of two hundred and eighty-eight million years, also not fixed.

One year in the Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Others' Transformations equals a single day and night in the Hot Hell; thirty such days make a month, and twelve such months make a year — reckoned this way, the lifespan of that hell is two hundred and eighty-eight million years, also not fixed. One year in the Heaven of Delight in Transformation equals a single day and night in the Hell of the Great Cry; reckoned the same way, that hell's lifespan is a hundred and forty-four million years, also not fixed. One year in Tuṣita Heaven equals a single day and night in the Hell of the Lesser Cry; reckoned the same way, that hell's lifespan is seventy-two million years, also not fixed. One year in the Yāma Heaven equals a single day and night in the Hell of Gathering and Crushing; reckoned the same way, that hell's lifespan is thirty-six million years, also not fixed. One year in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three equals a single day and night in the Black-Rope Hell; reckoned the same way, that hell's lifespan is eighteen million years, also not fixed. One year in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings equals a single day and night in the Hell of Repeated Revival; reckoned the same way, that hell's lifespan is nine million years, also not fixed. The lifespan of the Avīci Hell is one full kalpa, and that of the Great Heat Hell half a kalpa — these two alone have a truly fixed lifespan. Five hundred years in the human realm equal a single day and night among the hungry ghosts; reckoned the same way, the lifespan of a hungry ghost is fifteen thousand years, also not fixed. Among animals, apart from the two dragon-kings Nanda and Upananda, every other being's lifespan there is likewise not fixed. One year in the Avīci Hell equals a single day and night in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception; reckoned the same way, the lifespan of beings in that heaven is eighty thousand great kalpas; in the sphere of nothing-whatsoever it is sixty thousand kalpas; in the sphere of infinite consciousness, forty thousand kalpas; and in the sphere of infinite space, twenty thousand kalpas."

"If a person gives rise to only a faint residue of affliction, still clinging with attachment to the concentration of empty space, know that this person will be reborn into one of the four formless realms. Rising from ten years up to eighty thousand years, and falling from eighty thousand years back down to ten years, this cycle of increase and decrease, completed eighteen times over, is called a middling kalpa. Three periods of famine, three of plague, and one of warfare together make up one small kalpa. Two great destructions by water and by fire, each passing through five such cycles, followed by one great destruction by wind after those five cycles of wind-destruction have passed, together make up one great kalpa. When warfare breaks out in Jambudvīpa, people in the eastern and western continents feel only a brief flash of anger in response; when plague breaks out here, they feel only a slight headache and a little weakness there; when famine strikes here, they merely think of food there — and none of these calamities occur at all in Uttarakuru. Because killing is absent there, lifespans increase; because of the causes and conditions of theft, lifespans decrease elsewhere. There are two kinds of great kalpa-ending calamity: destruction by water, and destruction by fire. When the fire-kalpa begins, those hell-beings whose karmic retribution is already exhausted are all released from hell, while those whose retribution is not yet exhausted are transferred to great hells in other world-systems. When all eight great hells of this world are empty of beings, this is called sentient beings being freed from hell. As for all the beings dwelling in the four great oceans, those whose karma is exhausted are all liberated from that state, while those whose karma is not yet exhausted are all reborn into oceans in other world-systems; when not a single being remains in these oceans, this too is called liberation. Straight down beneath Jambudvīpa, past five hundred yojanas, lies the city of King Yama, its full circumference measuring seventy-five thousand yojanas. In this city, hungry ghosts whose karma is already exhausted are all released from that state; those whose karma is not yet exhausted are reborn in the realm of King Yama in some other world-system; and when not a single being remains in this city either, this too is called liberation. At that time there is a person who, through some inner cause and condition, attains the first dhyāna, and having attained it, cries out in a loud voice: 'The first dhyāna is peaceful stillness! The first dhyāna is peaceful stillness!' All who hear this reflect upon it in turn, and all together likewise attain the first dhyāna, relinquishing their human bodies to be reborn in the realm of the first dhyāna. Then, within the first dhyāna, there is again a person who, through some inner cause and condition, cultivates and attains the second dhyāna, and having attained it, cries out in a loud voice: 'The second dhyāna is peaceful stillness! The second dhyāna is peaceful stillness!' Sentient beings hearing this each reflect upon it in turn, and likewise attain the second dhyāna, relinquishing their bodies in the first dhyāna to be reborn in the realm of the second dhyāna. And at that time, from the Avīci Hell all the way up to the first dhyāna, not a single being remains behind.

"Good son, beyond the four continents there is Mount Yugandhara, within which there are seven suns; because of the power of sentient beings' merit, only one of these suns appears at a time, and it is by this single sun's warmth that the hundred grains and all plant life ripen. When the fire-kalpa begins, all seven suns appear together, and they burn up every kind of grain and plant, the mountains, rivers, and great earth, Mount Sumeru itself, and everything up to the first dhyāna. The beings of the second dhyāna, witnessing this conflagration, are struck with terror; but among them there are gods born there earlier who say to the gods born there later: 'Do not be afraid — we ourselves once witnessed just such a fire in the past; it reached exactly this far and stopped, and never came any further than this.' Just as beings' lifespans increase from ten years to eighty thousand and decrease from eighty thousand back to ten, over that same span of time this conflagration's heat still has not yet subsided. Then, from the intermediate dhyāna-level, a great rain begins pouring down, and over another full cycle of lifespans rising and falling, through the power of sentient beings' karmic conduct, seven layers of wind and cloud arise beneath to hold up this water. When the rain finally stops, a film forms on the water's surface, like the skin that forms on rich cream. Within the four continents, Mount Sumeru gradually rises up and takes shape once more, and the water spontaneously contains within it every kind of seed of every kind of thing. At that time, there is again a being in the second dhyāna whose lifespan is short and whose merit is exhausted, who, through the force of karma, falls and is reborn into this newly-formed world; his lifespan is immeasurable, he shines with his own light, and having dwelt there alone for a very long time, sorrow and anxiety arise in him, and he thinks to himself: 'Since I dwell here all alone, if I have merit, may there come to be other beings born here as well, to be my companions.' Once this thought arises, other beings of the second dhyāna, whose merit is thin and whose lifespan there is exhausted, come, through the force of their own karma, to be born in this same place. Seeing them, this first being's heart fills with joy, and he thinks to himself: 'These beings here are the ones I have brought into being through my own transformative power — I myself made them, and I hold sovereign power over them.' And these newly-arrived beings likewise think: 'I was born from that one; he transformed and made me; he holds sovereign power over my very self.' And it is because of this causal chain of thought that all sentient beings give rise to the notion of a self. Good son, the aggregates, elements, and sense-bases; the world of sentient beings; and the world of physical lands and environments — all of these come into being entirely through the causes and conditions of the ten courses of karma."

"Good son, there are two kinds of bodhisattva: the householder bodhisattva, and the renunciant bodhisattva. For a renunciant bodhisattva to contemplate these ten courses of karma in this way is not difficult; for a householder bodhisattva to contemplate them in this way is genuinely difficult. Why is that? Because a person living at home is bound about on every side by so many unwholesome causes and conditions."