Taking Up a Meditation Subject

Now, since, for one established in this virtue — cleansed by such qualities as wanting little, accomplished through the maintenance of the ascetic practices — concentration, pointed to by the word "mind" in the saying "a man of wisdom, established in virtue, should develop mind and understanding," should next be developed; and since that teaching, being given there in the utmost brevity, is not even easy to understand, let alone to develop — therefore, in order to show its detail and the method of its development, this series of questions is undertaken.

What is concentration? In what sense is it "concentration"? What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause? Of how many kinds is it? What is its defilement? What is its cleansing? How should it be developed? What is the benefit of developing concentration?

Herein, this is the answer. "What is concentration?": concentration is of many kinds, of various sorts. An answer that undertook to describe all of it would neither accomplish the purpose intended here, and would moreover lead to further distraction; therefore we speak here only with reference to what is intended: concentration is the one-pointedness of a wholesome mind.

"In what sense is it 'concentration'?": it is "concentration" (samādhi) in the sense of "composing" (samādhāna). What is this "composing"? It is said to be the even and proper placing, the settling, of mind and mental factors upon a single object. Therefore, that quality by whose power mind and mental factors remain upon a single object, evenly and properly, undistracted and unscattered, should be understood as "composing."

"What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause?": herein, concentration has non-distraction as its characteristic, the dispelling of distraction as its function, and non-wavering as its manifestation. And, because of the saying "the mind of one who is happy becomes concentrated," happiness is its proximate cause.

"Of how many kinds is it?": first, by way of its characteristic of non-distraction, it is of one kind. It is twofold by way of access and absorption; likewise by way of the mundane and the supramundane; by way of accompanied-by-joy and free-of-joy; and by way of accompanied-by-happiness and accompanied-by-equanimity. It is threefold by way of inferior, medium, and superior; likewise by way of accompanied-by-applied-and-sustained-thought and so on; by way of accompanied-by-joy and so on; and by way of limited, exalted, and immeasurable. It is fourfold by way of difficult-progress-with-sluggish-direct-knowledge and so on; likewise by way of limited-with-limited-object and so on; by way of the four jhāna factors; by way of conducive-to-decline and so on; by way of the sense sphere and so on; and by way of predominance. It is fivefold, in the fivefold method, by way of the five jhāna factors.

Herein, the onefold section is self-evident in meaning. In the twofold section: the one-pointedness of mind obtained by way of the six recollection-subjects, mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the perception of the repulsiveness of food, and the defining of the four elements — together with the one-pointedness that occurs in the preliminary stage of the absorption concentrations — this is access concentration. But, because of such sayings as "the preliminary work for the first jhāna is a condition for the first jhāna by the condition of immediate contiguity," the one-pointedness that immediately follows that preliminary work is absorption concentration. Thus it is twofold by way of access and absorption.

In the second pair: the one-pointedness of a wholesome mind on the three mundane planes is mundane concentration. The one-pointedness associated with the noble path is supramundane concentration. Thus it is twofold by way of the mundane and the supramundane.

In the third pair: the one-pointedness in the first two jhānas of the fourfold method, or the first three of the fivefold method, is concentration accompanied by joy. The one-pointedness in the remaining two jhānas is concentration free of joy. Access concentration, however, may be either accompanied by joy or free of joy. Thus it is twofold by way of accompanied-by-joy and free-of-joy.

In the fourth pair: the one-pointedness in the first three jhānas of the fourfold method, or the first four of the fivefold method, is concentration accompanied by happiness. In the remaining jhāna, it is concentration accompanied by equanimity. Access concentration, however, may be either accompanied by happiness or accompanied by equanimity. Thus it is twofold by way of accompanied-by-happiness and accompanied-by-equanimity.

Among the triads: in the first triad, concentration merely just obtained is inferior; not yet well developed is medium; well developed and having reached mastery is superior. Thus it is threefold by way of inferior, medium, and superior.

In the second triad: the concentration of the first jhāna, together with access concentration, is accompanied by both applied and sustained thought. In the fivefold method, the concentration of the second jhāna is accompanied by sustained thought only, without applied thought. For one who, having seen the danger in applied thought alone, without having seen it in sustained thought, and wishing only to abandon applied thought, transcends the first jhāna, attains a concentration that is merely without applied thought, with sustained thought still remaining; this was said with reference to that. But in the fourfold method, the one-pointedness in the second and following jhānas, or in the fivefold method the third and following jhānas, is concentration without either applied or sustained thought. Thus it is threefold by way of accompanied-by-applied-and-sustained-thought and so on.

In the third triad: the one-pointedness in the first two jhānas of the fourfold method, or the first three of the fivefold method, is concentration accompanied by joy. The one-pointedness in the third and fourth jhāna of that same scheme is concentration accompanied by happiness. In the final jhāna, it is accompanied by equanimity. Access concentration, however, is either accompanied by joy and happiness together, or accompanied by equanimity. Thus it is threefold by way of accompanied-by-joy and so on.

In the fourth triad: the one-pointedness on the plane of access is limited concentration. The one-pointedness in wholesome consciousness of the fine-material and immaterial spheres is exalted concentration. The one-pointedness associated with the noble path is immeasurable concentration. Thus it is threefold by way of limited, exalted, and immeasurable.

Among the tetrads: in the first tetrad, there is concentration with difficult progress and sluggish direct knowledge; there is concentration with difficult progress and quick direct knowledge; there is concentration with easy progress and sluggish direct knowledge; there is concentration with easy progress and quick direct knowledge.

Herein, the development of concentration that proceeds from the first attention to the meditation subject up until the access of that particular jhāna arises is called "progress." But the understanding that proceeds from access up until absorption is called "direct knowledge." Now, this progress is, for some, difficult — meaning it is troublesome and unpleasant to engage in, owing to the occurrence and taking hold of opposing states such as the hindrances. For others, owing to the absence of these, it is easy. Direct knowledge, too, is for some sluggish — weak, and not swift in its occurrence. For others, it is quick — strong and swift in its occurrence.

Herein, among the suitable and unsuitable things, the preliminary duties such as the cutting off of impediments, and the skills in absorption that we shall describe further on — whoever resorts to what is unsuitable has difficult progress and sluggish direct knowledge. For one who resorts to what is suitable, progress is easy and direct knowledge is quick. But for one who resorts to what is unsuitable in the earlier stage and to what is suitable in the later stage, or the reverse, a mixed condition should be understood. Likewise, for one who devotes himself to development without first accomplishing the preliminary duties such as the cutting off of impediments, progress is difficult; in the reverse case, it is easy. For one who does not accomplish the skills in absorption, direct knowledge is sluggish; for one who does accomplish them, it is quick.

Moreover, the distinction among these should also be understood by way of craving and ignorance, and by way of prior effort in serenity and insight. For one overpowered by craving, progress is difficult; for one not overpowered, it is easy. For one overpowered by ignorance, direct knowledge is sluggish; for one not overpowered, it is quick. For one who has made no prior effort in serenity, progress is difficult; for one who has made such effort, it is easy. For one who has made no prior effort in insight, direct knowledge is sluggish; for one who has made such effort, it is quick. The distinction among these should also be understood by way of defilements and faculties. For one of strong defilements and weak faculties, progress is difficult and direct knowledge is sluggish; but for one of sharp faculties, direct knowledge is quick even so. For one of weak defilements and weak faculties, progress is easy but direct knowledge is sluggish; for one of sharp faculties, however, direct knowledge is quick.

Thus, among these combinations of progress and direct knowledge, whatever person attains concentration by difficult progress and sluggish direct knowledge — for him, that concentration is called "of difficult progress and sluggish direct knowledge." The same method applies to the remaining three combinations as well. Thus it is fourfold by way of difficult-progress-with-sluggish-direct-knowledge and so on.

In the second tetrad: there is concentration that is limited with a limited object; there is limited with an immeasurable object; there is immeasurable with a limited object; there is immeasurable with an immeasurable object. Herein, whatever concentration is not yet skillfully mastered, and is not able to become a condition for a higher jhāna, this is "limited." But whatever occurs with an object that has not been expanded, this has a "limited object." Whatever is mastered, well developed, and able to become a condition for a higher jhāna, this is "immeasurable." And whatever occurs with an object that has been expanded, this has an "immeasurable object." By the mixing of the characteristics just stated, the mixed cases should be understood. Thus it is fourfold by way of limited-with-limited-object and so on.

In the third tetrad: with the hindrances suppressed, the first jhāna is fivefold in its factors — by way of applied thought, sustained thought, joy, happiness, and concentration. From that, with applied and sustained thought calmed, the second is threefold in its factors. From that, with joy having faded away, the third is twofold in its factors. From that, with happiness abandoned, the fourth is twofold in its factors, by way of the concentration accompanied by the feeling of equanimity. Thus these become the four concentrations that are the factors of these four jhānas. Thus it is fourfold by way of the four jhāna factors.

In the fourth tetrad: there is concentration conducive to decline; there is concentration conducive to stability; there is concentration conducive to distinction; there is concentration conducive to penetration. Herein, conduciveness to decline should be understood by way of the occurrence of opposing states; conduciveness to stability, by way of the persistence of mindfulness in conformity with that attainment; conduciveness to distinction, by way of the attainment of a higher distinction; and conduciveness to penetration, by way of the occurrence of perception and attention accompanied by disenchantment. As it is said: "In one who has obtained the first jhāna, perceptions and attention accompanied by sensual desire occur — this is understanding conducive to decline. Mindfulness in conformity with that attainment persists — this is understanding conducive to stability. Perceptions and attention accompanied by freedom from applied thought occur — this is understanding conducive to distinction. Perceptions and attention accompanied by disenchantment, connected with dispassion, occur — this is understanding conducive to penetration" (Vibhaṅga 799). And the concentrations associated with that understanding are likewise four. Thus it is fourfold by way of conducive-to-decline and so on.

In the fifth tetrad: sense-sphere concentration, fine-material-sphere concentration, immaterial-sphere concentration, and unincluded concentration — these are the four kinds of concentration. Herein, all one-pointedness of access is sense-sphere concentration. Likewise, the one-pointedness of wholesome consciousness of the fine-material sphere and the rest are the other three. Thus it is fourfold by way of the sense sphere and so on.

In the sixth tetrad: "if a monk gains concentration, gains one-pointedness of mind, by making zeal predominant, this is called concentration due to zeal ... if a monk [gains it] by making energy [predominant] ... by making mind [predominant] ... if a monk gains concentration, gains one-pointedness of mind, by making investigation predominant, this is called concentration due to investigation" (Vibhaṅga 432; S.N. 3.825). Thus it is fourfold by way of predominance.

In the fivefold scheme: the second jhāna spoken of in the fourfold division should be split in two — as a second jhāna by the transcending of applied thought alone, and as a third by the transcending of both applied and sustained thought — and the five jhānas should be understood in this way. And the five concentrations that are the factors of these should likewise be understood as fivefold by way of the five jhāna factors.

"What is its defilement, and what is its cleansing?": herein, the answer is simply what is stated in the Vibhaṅga. For it is said there: "Defilement is the state conducive to decline. Cleansing is the state conducive to distinction" (Vibhaṅga 828). Herein, the state conducive to decline should be understood by this same passage: "in one who has obtained the first jhāna, perceptions and attention accompanied by sensual desire occur — this is understanding conducive to decline" (Vibhaṅga 799). And the state conducive to distinction should be understood by this passage: "perceptions and attention accompanied by freedom from applied thought occur — this is understanding conducive to distinction" (Vibhaṅga 799).

"How should it be developed?": herein, as for that concentration already spoken of as associated with the noble path, in the passage beginning "twofold by way of the mundane and the supramundane" — its method of development is included simply within the method of developing understanding itself. For when understanding is developed, that concentration is thereby developed too. Therefore, with reference to it, we say nothing separately as to how it should be developed.

But as for mundane concentration — it should be developed, in brief, by one who, having purified his virtue in the way already described, and being established in virtue thus thoroughly purified, has cut off whichever of the ten impediments applies to him; who has approached a good friend able to give a meditation subject; who has taken up, in accordance with his own temperament, one of the forty meditation subjects; who, having abandoned a dwelling unsuited to the development of concentration, dwells in a suitable one; who has cut off minor impediments; and who does not let the whole procedure of development lapse. This, herein, is the summary.

But this is the detailed treatment. As for what was just said, "having cut off whichever of the ten impediments applies to him" — herein —

A dwelling, a family, gain, a following, and work as the fifth; a journey, relatives, sickness, books, and psychic power — these are the ten.

These are called the ten impediments. Herein, the dwelling itself is the impediment of dwelling. The same method applies to family and the rest.

Herein, "a dwelling" means even a single cell, even a single lodging-plot, or even an entire monastery. This is not an impediment for everyone. But for whoever, in connection with it, becomes engrossed in construction work and the like, or has accumulated many belongings there, or for whatever reason has an expectant, attached mind toward it — for him alone it is an impediment, not for another.

Here is the story. It is said that two young men of good family, having left Anurādhapura, went forth in due course at Thūpārāma. Of these, one, having mastered the two recitation-summaries, and having become a monk of five years' standing and completed the rains-invitation, went to a place called Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī. The other continued to dwell right there. The one who had gone to Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī, having dwelt there long and become an elder, thought: "This is a place well suited to solitary meditation — come, let me tell my companion about it too." So, setting out from there, he in due course entered Thūpārāma. And the elder of equal standing, seeing him just as he was entering, went out to meet him, took his bowl and robe, and performed the customary duties. The visiting elder, having entered his lodging, thought: "Now my companion will send me ghee, or molasses, or a drink — for he has long resided in this city." Not receiving anything that night, in the morning he thought: "Now he will send rice-gruel and refreshments obtained from his supporters." Not seeing that either, he thought, "there is no one to send it — he must mean to give it once I've gone in for alms," and so, early in the morning, he went with him into the village. The two of them, having walked along a single street, obtained only a ladleful of rice-gruel, and sat down in the resting-hall and drank it. Then the visitor thought: "there must be no regular rice-gruel here — but at meal-time, people will now give fine food." But then, at meal-time too, they walked for alms and ate only what was obtained; and the other said: "Venerable sir, do you always get by like this?"

"Yes, friend," he replied. "Venerable sir, Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī is comfortable — let us go there." The elder, leaving the city by the southern gate, took the road to the potters' village. The other said: "But, venerable sir, why have you taken this road?" "Was it not you, friend, who spoke in praise of Pācīnakhaṇḍarājī?" "But, venerable sir, is there nothing extra belonging to you at the place you've lived so long?" "Indeed, friend — the bed and chair belong to the Sangha, and they have already been put away; there is nothing else of mine." "But mine, venerable sir — my walking-staff, my oil-tube, and my sandal-bag — are still right there." "Have you, friend, after staying just one day, already set aside this much?" "Yes, venerable sir." He, with a mind full of confidence, having paid respects to the elder, said: "For one such as you, venerable sir, dwelling in the forest is proper anywhere at all. But Thūpārāma is the resting-place of the relics of four Buddhas; at the Bronze Palace, favorable Dhamma-teaching, the sight of the Great Shrine, and the sight of the elders can all be had — it goes on as if it were still the Buddha's own time. Do dwell right here." And on the next day, taking his own bowl and robe, he himself departed. For one such as this, a dwelling is not an impediment.

"A family" means either a family of relatives or a family of supporters. For some, even a family of supporters, if he dwells closely attached to them in the manner described as "happy when they are happy" and so on (Vibhaṅga 888; S.N. 4.241), becomes an impediment — such a one will not even go to a nearby monastery to hear the Dhamma without the family's own people. For some, even his own parents are not impediments — as in the case of the young nephew-monk of the elder who dwelt at Koraṇḍaka Monastery.

It is said that he went to Rohaṇa for the purpose of scriptural recitation-study. And the elder's own sister, a laywoman, would always ask the elder for news of him. One day the elder, thinking "I shall bring the young one back," set out facing toward Rohaṇa. The young monk too, thinking "I have dwelt here long; now, having seen my preceptor and learned news of the laywoman, I shall come back," set out from Rohaṇa. The two of them met on the bank of the river. He, having performed the customary duty for the elder at the foot of a certain tree, when asked "where are you going?", told him the reason. The elder said: "Well done — the laywoman, too, always asks after you; I myself have come for this very purpose. You go on; I, however, shall spend this rains right here" — and so sent him on his way. He arrived at that monastery on the very day appointed for entering the rains-retreat. And the lodging he received was, as it happened, the very one built by his own father.

Then his father, coming the next day and asking, "Venerable sir, to whom has our lodging fallen?", and hearing "to a visiting young monk," approached him, paid respects, and said: "Venerable sir, there is a customary duty for one who has entered the rains in our lodging." "What is it, layman?" "For the three months, you should take almsfood at our house alone, and, having completed the rains, ask leave of us at the time of your departure." He consented by remaining silent. The layman, having gone home, said: "A visiting monk has come to our dwelling; he should be attended to with care." The laywoman, agreeing, "Very well," prepared fine food, both hard and soft. The young monk, too, at meal-time, went to the house of his relatives. No one recognized him.

He, having taken almsfood there for the full three months, and having completed the rains, asked leave, saying, "I am going." His relatives said, "Tomorrow, venerable sir, you may go" — and the next day, having fed him right there at the house, and having filled an oil-tube, given a lump of molasses and a nine-cubit cloth, said: "Go now, venerable sir." He, having given the blessing, set out facing toward Rohaṇa.

His preceptor, too, having completed the rains and coming back along the same road, saw him at that very place they had met before. He performed the customary duty for the elder at the foot of a certain tree. Then the elder asked him: "Well, good sir, did you see the laywoman?" "Yes, venerable sir," he said, and, having told him the whole matter, anointed the elder's feet with that oil, made a drink with the molasses, and gave that cloth, too, to the elder himself; then, having paid respects to the elder, said, "Rohaṇa alone is suitable for me, venerable sir," and went on. The elder, too, having come to the monastery, on the next day entered Koraṇḍaka village.

And the laywoman, thinking "my brother, having brought my son, is now coming," stood always watching the road. Seeing him coming alone, she thought, "my son must be dead — this elder comes alone," and, falling at the elder's feet, wept, lamenting. The elder, thinking "surely, out of wanting little, the young one went without making himself known," comforted her, told her the whole matter, and, taking that cloth out of his bowl-bag, showed it to her.

The laywoman, filled with faith, lying face down toward the direction her son had gone, paying homage, said: "Surely it must have been with a monk just like my son as living witness that the Blessed One taught the practice of the relay of chariots (M.N. 1.252 and following), the practice taught to Nālaka (Sn. 684 and following), the practice taught to Tuvaṭaka (Sn. 921 and following), and the practice of the great noble lineage illustrating contentment and delight in development regarding the four requisites (A.N. 4.28; D.N. 3.309). Even eating for three months in the very house of the mother who bore him, he would not say, 'I am your son, you are my mother' — oh, what an astonishing person!" For one such as this, not even his own parents are impediments — how much less another family of supporters.

"Gain" means the four requisites. How do these become impediments? For a meritorious monk, wherever he goes, people give him requisites with great retinues. He, giving them the blessing and teaching them the Dhamma, finds no opportunity to do a recluse's work. From the rising of dawn until the first watch, his contact with people is not cut off. And then, in the very depth of the pre-dawn hour, monks accustomed to abundant almsfood come and say, "Venerable sir, such-and-such a layman, laywoman, minister, or minister's daughter wishes to see you" — and he, saying "take my bowl and robe, friend," is always ready to set out, constantly occupied; for him alone, these requisites are impediments. By this, he should give up the crowd and wander alone, somewhere he is not known. Thus that impediment is cut off.

"A following" means a group of students in the discourses or in the Abhidhamma — whoever, giving them recitation-instruction or answering their questions, finds no opportunity for a recluse's work, for him alone a following becomes an impediment; by him it should be cut off in this way. If those monks have taken up much and little remains, he should finish that and then enter the forest. If little has been taken up and much remains, without going beyond a league from them, within the boundary of a league he should approach another teacher of a group and say: "Let the venerable one take these students in hand with recitation and the rest." If, proceeding thus, he cannot obtain such a teacher, he should say: "Friends, I have a certain task; go wherever is comfortable for you," and, giving up the group, attend to his own work.

"Work" means construction work. For one engaged in it, what has and has not been obtained from carpenters and the like must be kept track of, and diligence must be applied to what is done and undone — it is thus, at all times, an impediment. This too should be cut off in this way: if little remains, it should be finished. If much remains, then, if the construction work belongs to the Sangha, it should be handed over to the Sangha or to monks who bear the Sangha's burdens; if it is his own, it should be handed over to those who bear his own burdens. If unable to find such a person, he should relinquish it to the Sangha and go.

"A journey" means travel by road. For whoever has someone somewhere expecting to go forth under him, or has some requisite yet to be obtained — if, not obtaining it, he is unable to bear the wait, then even for one who has entered the forest and is doing a recluse's work, the thought of the journey still to be made is hard to dispel; therefore he should go, settle that business, and only then apply diligence to a recluse's work.

"Relatives" means, in the monastery, one's teachers, preceptors, pupils, students, fellow pupils under the same preceptor, and fellow students under the same teacher; at home, one's mother, father, brother, and so on. When these are sick, they become an impediment for him; therefore that impediment should be cut off by attending upon them and restoring them to their normal state.

Herein, first, a sick preceptor, if he does not quickly recover, should be cared for even for the rest of one's life. Likewise the going-forth teacher, the higher-ordination teacher, one's own pupil, a pupil one has ordained or given the going-forth to, and fellow pupils under the same preceptor. But a dependence-teacher, a recitation-teacher, a pupil under one's dependence, a pupil receiving recitation-instruction, and fellow students under the same teacher should be cared for only for as long as the relation of dependence or instruction has not been ended — though if one is able, they should indeed be cared for even beyond that. Toward one's mother and father, one should act just as toward a preceptor: even if they hold royal power, and expect attendance from their son, it should indeed be given. If they have no medicine, one's own should be given; if none is at hand, it should indeed be sought by walking for alms and given. But for brothers and sisters, only what belongs to them should be procured and given. If they have none, one's own should be given temporarily, to be taken back later when something else is obtained; if nothing is obtained, they should not be pressed to repay it. For a sister's husband who is not a blood relative, it is not proper either to prepare or to give medicine directly — but, having said to the sister, "give this to your husband," it may be given to her to pass on. The same method applies to a brother's wife. But their children are indeed this one's own relatives, so it is proper to act for them directly.

"Sickness" means any illness. Afflicting the mind, it becomes an impediment; therefore it should be cut off by treating it with medicine. But if, even after treating it with medicine for some days, it does not subside, then, having reproached this body with the thought, "I am not your slave, nor your servant — it is precisely by nourishing you that I have met with suffering in the beginningless round of saṃsāra," a recluse's work should be done regardless.

"Books" means the carrying of the scriptures in mind. This is an impediment for one constantly occupied with recitation and the like, not for another. Here are the accounts —

It is said that the Elder Deva, a reciter of the Majjhima Nikāya, went to the presence of another Elder Deva who dwelt in Malaya, and asked for a meditation subject. The elder asked: "What is your standing, friend, in the scriptures?" "The Majjhima is well mastered by me, venerable sir." "Friend, this Majjhima is hard to maintain — while reciting the first fifty suttas, the middle fifty comes to mind and fades; while reciting that, the last fifty fades in turn. From where, then, would you get a meditation subject?" "Venerable sir, having obtained a meditation subject from you, I shall not look at the scriptures again" — and, taking up the meditation subject, without reciting for nineteen years, in the twentieth year he attained arahantship. And to monks who came for the purpose of recitation-study, he said: "For twenty years, friends, I have not looked at the scriptures — nevertheless, I am still practiced in this; begin." And from the beginning right to the end, he had no doubt even about a single syllable.

The Elder Nāga, too, who dwelt at Karuḷiyagiri, having set aside the scriptures for eighteen years, then gave recitation-instruction to monks on the Dhātukathā. When they compared it with the village-dwelling elders' own versions, not a single question came out in the wrong order.

At the Mahāvihāra, too, an elder named Tipiṭaka-Cūḷābhaya, thinking "without even having received the commentary, I shall recite through the three Piṭakas within the circle of the five Nikāyas," had the golden drum sounded to announce it. The community of monks said: "Whose teachers' transmission is this? Let him speak only his own teachers' transmission; otherwise we do not permit him to speak." His preceptor, too, when he came to attend upon him, asked: "Was it you, friend, who had the drum sounded?" "Yes, venerable sir." "For what reason?" "I shall recite the scriptures, venerable sir." "Friend Abhaya, how do the teachers explain this passage?" "They explain it thus, venerable sir." The elder rejected it with "no." Again he said, by one method after another, "they explain it thus, venerable sir" — three times. The elder rejected every one with "no," and said: "Friend, what you said first was indeed the teachers' own way — but because you have not received it from a teacher's own mouth, you were unable to stand firm in saying 'thus the teachers explain it.' Go and listen in the presence of your own teachers." "Where shall I go, venerable sir?" "Beyond the river, in the Rohaṇa district, at Tulādhārapabbata Monastery, there dwells an elder named Mahādhammarakkhita, master of the whole of the scriptures; go to his presence." "Very well, venerable sir," he said, and, having paid respects to the elder, went with five hundred monks to that elder's presence, paid respects, and sat down. The elder asked: "Why have you come?" "To hear the Dhamma, venerable sir." "Friend Abhaya, in the Dīgha and Majjhima, they question me from time to time. But the remainder I have not looked at for as much as thirty years. Nevertheless, you recite it to me at night; I shall explain it to you by day." He, saying "very well, venerable sir," did so. Having had a great pavilion built at the door of the dwelling, the village-dwellers came day after day to hear the Dhamma. The elder recited at night; explaining it by day, he in due course finished the whole exposition, and then, sitting on a mat before the Elder Abhaya, said: "Friend, tell me a meditation subject." "Venerable sir, what are you saying? Was it not from your own presence that I heard it? What could I explain that you do not already know?" Then the elder said to him: "Friend, that is a different matter — this is simply the way of one who has already traveled it." The Elder Abhaya was, it is said, a stream-enterer at that time. Having then given him a meditation subject, the elder Mahādhammarakkhita — Abhaya Thera later heard, while reciting the Dhamma at the Bronze Palace, that he had attained final Nibbāna. Hearing this, saying "bring my robe, friend," he put on his robe and said: "Fitting indeed, friends, is our teacher's path to arahantship. Our teacher, friends, was truly a thoroughbred. He, sitting on a mat before his own pupil in the Dhamma, said, 'Tell me a meditation subject.' Fitting indeed, friends, is the elder's path to arahantship." For those such as these, books are not an impediment.

"Psychic power" means the ordinary worldling's psychic power. For this is as hard to maintain as an infant lying on its back, or as a young crop; it breaks with the merest trifle. But this is an impediment to insight, not to concentration, since it is attained only after attaining concentration. Therefore, one who seeks insight should cut off the impediment of psychic power; another may leave it as it is. This, for now, is the detailed treatment of the discourse on the impediments.

"Having approached a good friend able to give a meditation subject": herein, a meditation subject is twofold — the universal meditation subject and the individual meditation subject. Herein, the universal meditation subject is loving-kindness toward the community of monks and the rest, and mindfulness of death. Some also say the perception of foulness.

For a monk devoted to a meditation subject should, first of all, having delimited the scope, develop loving-kindness toward the community of monks within the boundary: "may they be happy, free from affliction." Then toward the deities within the boundary. Then toward the ruling people in the alms-resort village. Then, starting from the people there, toward all beings. For, by loving-kindness toward the community of monks, he produces gentleness of mind in those who dwell with him; then his life together with them becomes happy. By loving-kindness toward the deities within the boundary, he becomes one whose protection is well arranged, through the righteous protection of deities whose minds have been made gentle. By loving-kindness toward the ruling people of the alms-resort village, his requisites become well protected through the righteous protection of rulers whose minds have been made gentle. By loving-kindness toward the people there, he goes about unmolested by them, their minds having been made confident. By loving-kindness toward all beings, his going about is everywhere unobstructed. But by mindfulness of death, reflecting "I must certainly die," he gives up improper livelihood, has his sense of urgency growing ever further, and becomes one whose conduct does not sink into laxity. And for one whose mind is habituated by the perception of foulness, even heavenly objects do not overpower his mind by way of greed.

Because it is thus of great help, and because it should be desired and wished for everywhere, and because it is the ground of the meditator's intended work of continued application to practice, it is called the "universal meditation subject."

But among the forty meditation subjects, whichever suits a given person's temperament — because it is to be constantly carried by him, and because it is the proximate cause for each successively higher work of development — is called the "individual meditation subject." Thus, whoever gives both of these kinds of meditation subject is called "one who gives a meditation subject." That is "the giver of a meditation subject."

"A good friend": —

Dear and respected, worthy of esteem, a speaker of good counsel and one who patiently endures being spoken to, a maker of profound talk, and one who does not urge another toward what is improper. (A.N. 7.37)

One endowed with such qualities as these, wholly seeking one's welfare, standing on the side of growth — this is "a good friend."

But because of such sayings as "for, Ānanda, it is in dependence on me as a good friend that beings subject to birth become freed from birth" (S.N. 1.129; 5.2), the Fully Enlightened One himself alone is the good friend complete in every respect. Therefore, while he is present, a meditation subject taken in the presence of that very Blessed One is well taken. But when he has attained final Nibbāna, it is proper to take it in the presence of whichever of the eighty great disciples is still living. When none of these is available, it should be taken in the presence of one who has reached the destruction of the taints — an arahant — who has produced the jhānas of the fourfold or fivefold scheme by means of that very meditation subject one wishes to take up, and has developed insight with that jhāna as its proximate cause.

But does an arahant declare himself, saying "I am an arahant"? What should be said is this: knowing the pupil's capacity to accomplish the practice, he does reveal himself. Did not the Elder Assagutta, knowing of a monk who had taken up a meditation subject, "this one is capable of accomplishing the meditation subject," spread out a piece of hide in the air and, sitting there cross-legged, explain the meditation subject to him?

Therefore, if one obtains an arahant, that is good; if not, then among a non-returner, a once-returner, a stream-enterer, a worldling who has attained jhāna, a holder of the three Piṭakas, a holder of two Piṭakas, and a holder of one Piṭaka — in the presence of each earlier one in preference to each later. And if even a holder of one Piṭaka is not available, it should be taken in the presence of whoever has mastered even just a single portion of the communal recitation together with its commentary, and who is conscientious. For such a teacher, a holder of the textual tradition, a guardian of the lineage, a preserver of the transmitted custom, holds only his teachers' view, not his own private opinion. For this very reason, the ancient elders said three times: "a conscientious one will guard it, a conscientious one will guard it."

And here, the arahants and the rest already mentioned explain only the path they themselves have attained. But one of great learning, having approached this or that teacher and had his learning and questioning thoroughly purified, considering the discourse and the reasoning from here and there, applying what is suitable and unsuitable, going through difficult ground like a great elephant showing the main road, will explain the meditation subject properly. Therefore, having approached such a good friend able to give a meditation subject, and having performed the customary duties toward him, one should take up the meditation subject.

But if one obtains this in one's own monastery, that is good; if not, one should go where he dwells. And one going should not go with feet unwashed and soiled, having put on sandals, carrying an umbrella, having had oil-tubes, honey, molasses, and the like carried along, surrounded by pupils. Rather, having fulfilled the traveler's duties, carrying one's own bowl and robe oneself, performing the proper observances at every monastery entered along the way, with light baggage, and living in the utmost austerity, one should go.

One entering that monastery should, while still on the road, have a tooth-stick made allowable and take it, and then enter; and one should not, thinking "having rested a moment and washed and anointed my feet and so on, I shall then go to the teacher's presence," enter some other lodging-plot first. Why? For if there should be, there, monks unfavorably disposed toward that teacher, they might ask his reason for coming, speak ill of the teacher, and say "you are ruined, if you have come to him," thereby producing remorse in him, on account of which he might turn back right there. Therefore, having asked for the teacher's dwelling place, one should go straight there.

If the teacher is younger, one should not accept his taking of one's bowl and robe and the like. If he is older, one should go, pay respects to the teacher, and stand waiting. When told, "Set down your bowl and robe, friend," one should set them down. When told, "Drink water," if one wishes, one should drink. When told, "Wash your feet," one should not yet wash them — for if the water should have been fetched by the teacher himself, it would not be proper. But when told, "Wash, friend — it was not fetched by me, it was fetched by others," then, in a place where the teacher cannot see — such a sheltered spot, or in the open air, or sitting at one side even within the monastery — the feet should be washed.

If the teacher brings an oil-tube, one should rise and take it respectfully with both hands. For if one should not take it, the teacher would become displeased, thinking "this monk, from this very point, spoils our fellowship." But, having taken it, one should not anoint the feet with it right away — for if that should be the teacher's own body-anointing oil, it would not be proper. Therefore, the head should be anointed first, then the shoulders and so on. But when told, "This is all-purpose oil, friend — anoint your feet with it too," then, having applied a little to the head, and anointed the feet, one should say, "I am putting down this oil-tube, venerable sir," and give it back when the teacher takes it.

From the very day of arrival, one should not say, "Venerable sir, tell me a meditation subject." But from the second day onward, if the teacher has a regular attendant, one should ask his leave and then perform the attendant's duties. If, even when asked, he does not grant it, they should be performed only when the opportunity arises. One performing them should offer three tooth-sticks — small, medium, and large. Water for washing the face, and water for bathing, of two kinds, cold and warm, should be prepared. Thereafter, whatever the teacher makes use of for three days running, the same should thereafter regularly be offered; for one who, without settling into a fixed preference, makes use of now this, now that, whatever is obtained should simply be offered.

But why say so much? Whatever proper conduct is laid down in the Khandhaka, beginning with the Blessed One's own words — "Monks, a pupil should conduct himself properly toward his teacher. Herein, this is proper conduct: rising early, having removed his sandals and arranged his upper robe over one shoulder, he should give a tooth-stick, give water for the mouth, and prepare a seat; if there is rice-gruel, he should wash the vessel and offer the rice-gruel" (Mahāvagga 78) — all of that should be done in full.

Thus, satisfying the teacher through the accomplishment of these observances, when dismissed with "pay respects in the evening and then go," one should go; when he asks, "for what have you come?", then the reason for coming should be told. If he does not ask at all, but does accept the observances, then, when ten days or a fortnight have passed, even if dismissed on some day as usual, one should not go, but should make an opportunity and announce the reason for coming. Or, having gone at an unaccustomed time, when asked "for what purpose have you come?", it should be announced. If he says, "come early in the morning," one should go early in the morning.

But if, at that time, his belly is burning with a bile-disorder, or his food is not digesting through weak digestive fire, or some other illness is afflicting him, that should be truthfully disclosed, one's own suitable time announced, and the teacher approached at that time. For a meditation subject explained at an unsuitable time cannot be properly attended to. This is the detailed treatment of "having approached a good friend able to give a meditation subject."

Now, as to "in accordance with his own temperament" — herein, "temperament" means six temperaments: the temperament of greed, the temperament of hatred, the temperament of delusion, the temperament of faith, the temperament of intelligence, and the temperament of discursive thought. But some hold that, by way of the combination and conjunction of greed and the rest, there are four further ones, and likewise for faith and the rest — wishing for fourteen along with these eight. But if the division is stated in this way, then, making combinations of greed and the rest with faith and the rest too, the temperaments become numerous; therefore, in brief, only six temperaments should be understood. "Temperament," "nature," and "predominance" are, in meaning, one and the same. By way of these, there are just six kinds of persons: one of greedy temperament, one of hating temperament, one of deluded temperament, one of faithful temperament, one of intelligent temperament, and one of discursive-thought temperament.

Herein, because, at the time wholesome states occur in one of greedy temperament, faith becomes strong in him — since faith has qualities close to those of greed. For just as, on the unwholesome side, greed is smooth, not harsh, so too, on the wholesome side, is faith. Just as greed seeks out objects of sensual desire, so faith seeks out such qualities as virtue. Just as greed does not let go of what is harmful, so faith does not let go of what is beneficial; therefore, the temperament of faith is akin to the temperament of greed.

But because, at the time wholesome states occur in one of hating temperament, understanding becomes strong in him — since hatred has qualities close to those of understanding. For just as, on the unwholesome side, hatred is without affection and does not cling to its object, so too, on the wholesome side, is understanding. And just as hatred seeks out faults even where they do not exist, so understanding seeks out only real faults. Just as hatred proceeds by way of avoiding beings, so understanding proceeds by way of avoiding attachment to formations; therefore, the temperament of intelligence is akin to the temperament of hatred.

But because, for one of deluded temperament striving for the arising of wholesome states not yet arisen, obstructive thoughts mostly arise — since delusion has a characteristic close to that of discursive thought. For just as delusion is unsteady through confusion, so is discursive thought, through thinking in many different ways. And just as delusion is fickle through not penetrating its object, so is discursive thought, through its light, quick conceiving; therefore, the temperament of discursive thought is akin to the temperament of delusion.

Others speak of three further temperaments by way of craving, conceit, and views. Herein, craving is simply greed, and conceit is associated with it; so both of these do not go beyond the temperament of greed. And because views have delusion as their source, the temperament of views falls under the temperament of delusion itself.

But what is the source of these temperaments? And how should it be known, "this person is of greedy temperament, this person is of one or another of the temperaments of hatred and the rest"? What is suitable for a person of which temperament?

Herein, first, some say that the first three temperaments have their source in past habitual conduct, and in a source of elemental disorder. It is said that one who, in the past, was much given to pleasant undertakings and beautiful deeds becomes of greedy temperament, or one who, having passed away from a heaven, has arisen here. One who, in the past, was much given to deeds of cutting, killing, binding, and enmity becomes of hating temperament, or one who, having passed away from hell or from the nāga realm, has arisen here. One who, in the past, was much given to drinking liquor, and devoid of learning and inquiry, becomes of deluded temperament, or one who, having passed away from the animal realm, has arisen here — thus they speak of a source in past habitual conduct. But, owing to the predominance of two elements, the earth element and the water element, a person becomes of deluded temperament. Owing to the predominance of the other two, he becomes of hating temperament. But owing to all four being equal, he becomes of greedy temperament. And, among the bodily humors, one with predominant phlegm becomes of greedy temperament; one with predominant wind becomes of deluded temperament. Or: one with predominant phlegm becomes of deluded temperament; one with predominant wind becomes of greedy temperament — thus they speak of a source in elemental disorder.

Herein, since not all who, in the past, were much given to pleasant undertakings and beautiful deeds, and who, having passed away from a heaven, have arisen here, are of greedy temperament alone — nor are the others necessarily of hating or deluded temperament. And likewise, for the elements, there is, by the very method just stated, no fixed rule of predominance. And in the rule concerning the bodily humors, only the pair of greed and delusion was stated, and even that is self-contradictory from one statement to the next. And for the temperaments of faith and the rest, not even a single source was stated at all. Therefore all this is an unsettled, imprecise account.

But here is the determination in accordance with the view of the commentary-teachers; for this was said in the "Account of Predominance" (Dhammasaṅgaṇī-aṭṭhakathā 498): "These beings, by the fixed order of their past causes, are ones with predominant greed, predominant hatred, predominant delusion, predominant non-greed, predominant non-hatred, and predominant non-delusion.

For one in whom, at the moment of accumulating that kamma, greed was strong and non-greed weak, while non-hatred and non-delusion were strong and hatred and delusion weak — for him, the weak non-greed is unable to overpower the greed, but the strong non-hatred and non-delusion are able to overpower the hatred and delusion. Therefore he, born by way of the rebirth-linking given by that kamma, is greedy, yet of a happy disposition, free from anger, wise, with knowledge like a diamond.

But for one in whom, at that moment, greed and hatred were strong and non-greed and non-hatred weak, while non-delusion was strong and delusion weak — he, by the same method as before, is both greedy and hating; but he is wise, with knowledge like a diamond, like the Elder Dattābhaya.

For one in whom, at that moment, greed, non-hatred, and delusion were strong and the others weak — he, by the same method as before, is both greedy and dull-witted, but virtuous and free from anger, like the Elder Bākula.

Likewise, for one in whom, at that moment, all three of greed, hatred, and delusion were strong and non-greed and the rest weak — he, by the same method as before, is greedy, hating, and deluded, all three.

But for one in whom, at that moment, non-greed, hatred, and delusion were strong and the others weak — he, by the same method as before, is not greedy and has few defilements in that regard, unmoved even on seeing a heavenly object; but he is hating and dull-witted.

But for one in whom, at that moment, non-greed, non-hatred, and delusion were strong and the others weak — he, by the same method as before, is not greedy and not hating, and virtuous; but he is dull-witted.

Likewise, for one in whom, at that moment, non-greed, hatred, and non-delusion were strong and the others weak — he, by the same method as before, is not greedy and is wise; but he is hating and prone to anger.

But for one in whom, at that moment, all three of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion were strong and greed and the rest weak — he, by the same method as before, is, like the Elder Mahāsaṅgharakkhita, not greedy, not hating, and wise."

And herein, whoever is said to be "greedy" is of greedy temperament. The hating and the dull-witted are of hating and deluded temperament respectively. The wise is of intelligent temperament. The not-greedy-and-not-hating, by nature of being trusting, are of faithful temperament. Or: just as one born by kamma accompanied by non-delusion is of intelligent temperament, so one born by kamma accompanied by strong faith is of faithful temperament. One born by kamma accompanied by thoughts of sensual desire and the like is of discursive-thought temperament. One born by kamma accompanied by a mixture of greed and the rest is of mixed temperament. Thus it should be understood that the source of the temperaments is the rebirth-producing kamma accompanied by one or another of greed and the rest.

As for what was said, "and how should it be known, 'this person is of greedy temperament,'" and so on — herein is the method.

By way of posture, by activity, by eating, by seeing and the rest, and by the occurrence of mental states — one should discern the temperaments.

Herein, "by way of posture": one of greedy temperament, walking in his ordinary gait, walks gracefully; he sets his foot down gently, sets it down evenly, lifts it evenly, and his footprint is well-formed and evenly rounded. One of hating temperament walks as though digging with his toes; he sets his foot down abruptly, lifts it abruptly, and his footprint is dragged. One of deluded temperament walks with a confused gait; he sets his foot down as though startled, lifts it as though startled, and his footprint is suddenly pressed down. And this was said in the origin-story of the Māgaṇḍiya Sutta —

"For the lustful one's footprint would be evenly rounded; the hating one's footprint is dragged; the deluded one's is suddenly pressed down — but for one whose veil is removed, the footprint is such as this."

The standing posture, too, of one of greedy temperament, is pleasing, of a charming appearance; of one of hating temperament, it is stiff in appearance; of one of deluded temperament, it is confused in appearance. The same method applies to sitting as well. And one of greedy temperament, unhurried, having spread out his bed evenly, lies down gently, gathering his limbs together, and sleeps in a pleasing manner; and, when being woken, he does not rise quickly, but, as though suspicious, gives his reply slowly. One of hating temperament, hurriedly, having spread out his bed anyhow, lies down with his body flung down, frowning; and, when being woken, he rises quickly and gives his reply as though angry. One of deluded temperament, having spread out his bed in disorder, lies with his body sprawled, mostly face down; and, when being woken, he rises slowly, making a grunting sound. But because the temperaments of faith and the rest are akin to those of greed and the rest, their postures too are of the same kind. Thus, first of all, the temperaments should be discerned by way of posture.

"By activity": in such activities as sweeping, one of greedy temperament takes the broom properly, and, unhurried, without scattering the sand about, sweeps cleanly and evenly, as though spreading out a bed of siṇḍuvāra flowers. One of hating temperament takes the broom firmly, and, seeming to hurry, pushing the sand to both sides with a harsh noise, sweeps uncleanly and unevenly. One of deluded temperament takes the broom loosely, and, moving it back and forth confusedly, sweeps uncleanly and unevenly.

Just as in sweeping, so too in all activities such as washing and dyeing robes, one of greedy temperament is a skillful, pleasing, even, and careful worker. One of hating temperament is a forceful, stiff, and uneven worker. One of deluded temperament is an unskillful, confused, uneven, and undecided worker. And the wearing of the robe, too, for one of greedy temperament, is neither too tight nor too loose, pleasing and well-draped. For one of hating temperament, it is too tight and not well-draped. For one of deluded temperament, it is loose and disordered. The temperaments of faith and the rest should be understood following the very same pattern, since they are akin. Thus, the temperaments should be discerned by way of activity.

"By eating": one of greedy temperament is fond of smooth, sweet food; and, eating, he makes a not-too-large, well-rounded morsel, savoring the taste, and eats unhurriedly; and, obtaining something tasty, he becomes pleased. One of hating temperament is fond of coarse, sour food; and, eating, he makes a mouth-filling morsel, not savoring the taste, and eats hurriedly; and, obtaining something unpalatable, he becomes displeased. One of deluded temperament has no fixed preference; and, eating, he makes a small, poorly-formed morsel, dropping bits back into the vessel, smearing his mouth, with a distracted mind, thinking of this and that, as he eats. The temperaments of faith and the rest, too, should be understood following the very same pattern, since they are akin. Thus, the temperaments should be discerned by way of eating.

"By seeing and the rest": one of greedy temperament, seeing even a slightly pleasing form, looks at it for a long time as though astonished; he becomes attached even to minor good qualities, and does not take note even of a real fault; and, even when departing, he departs reluctantly, as though unwilling to let go, still looking back. One of hating temperament, seeing even a slightly unpleasing form, looks at it only briefly, as though wearied; he is repelled even by minor faults, and does not take note even of a real good quality; and, when departing, he departs willingly, as though wishing to be rid of it, without looking back. One of deluded temperament, seeing any form whatsoever, relies on others' opinions; hearing another criticize it, he criticizes it too; hearing another praise it, he praises it too; but he himself remains merely indifferent, through an indifference born of not-knowing. The same method applies also to hearing sounds and the rest. The temperaments of faith and the rest, again, should be understood following the very same pattern, since they are akin. Thus, the temperaments should be discerned by way of seeing and the rest.

"And by the occurrence of mental states": in one of greedy temperament, such states as deceit, fraud, conceit, evil wishes, great wishes, discontent, vanity, and frivolity mostly occur. In one of hating temperament: anger, grudge-holding, denigration, domineering rivalry, envy, and stinginess, and the like. In one of deluded temperament: sloth, torpor, restlessness, worry, doubt, obstinate grasping, and difficulty in letting go, and the like. In one of faithful temperament: openhanded generosity, desire to see noble ones, desire to hear the true Dhamma, an abundance of gladness, freedom from deceit, freedom from fraud, and confidence in things that inspire confidence, and the like. In one of intelligent temperament: being easy to correct, having good friends, moderation in eating, mindfulness and clear comprehension, devotion to wakefulness, a sense of urgency toward things that should inspire urgency, and, once urgency has arisen, right effort — and the like. In one of discursive-thought temperament: much idle talk, delight in company, dislike of devotion to wholesome practice, unsettled activity, smoldering by night, blazing up by day, and running from this to that — such states mostly occur. Thus, the temperaments should be discerned by way of the occurrence of mental states.

But since this method of discerning temperament has not come down, in every respect, either in the Pāli texts or in the commentaries, but has been stated purely in accordance with the teachers' own view, it should not be relied upon as authoritative in every particular. For even those of hating temperament and the rest, if they dwell heedfully, are able to display the postures and so on described for one of greedy temperament. And for a person of mixed temperament, postures and the rest with mutually inconsistent characteristics cannot properly apply to that one same person. But whatever method of discerning temperament has been stated in the commentaries themselves — that alone should be relied upon as authoritative. For this was said: "a teacher who has attained the knowledge of penetrating others' minds will explain the meditation subject having directly known the pupil's temperament; by another teacher, lacking that knowledge, the pupil should be questioned." Therefore, either by the knowledge of penetrating minds, or by questioning that person, it should be known: "this person is of greedy temperament, this one is of one or another of the temperaments of hatred and the rest."

"What is suitable for a person of which temperament?": herein, first, a dwelling suitable for one of greedy temperament is one such as this: a grass hut or leaf-shelter or the like, with an unwashed enclosure-wall, standing directly on the ground, without a properly finished slope, strewn with dust, full of resin-cracks, dilapidated and falling apart, either too high or too low, on barren ground, liable to danger, with a filthy, uneven approach-path — where even the bed and chair are full of bed-bugs, ill-formed, and ugly in color — a place at the mere sight of which disgust arises. A lower and upper garment with cut hems, covered with dangling loose threads, full of holes like a net-cake, rough to the touch like sackcloth, dirty, heavy, and troublesome to maintain, is suitable. A bowl, too, that is ugly in color — either a clay bowl, or an iron bowl studded with rivet-knobs — heavy, ill-shaped, repulsive like a skull, is proper. An almsround path, too, that is unpleasant, with the village not nearby, and uneven, is proper. An almsround village, too, where people go about as if not seeing him, where, even at a single house, when he leaves without getting alms, they do not say "come, venerable sir," invite him into the sitting-hall, and give him rice-gruel and a meal — where they simply usher him in, as one drives a cow into a pen, and leave without looking back — such a village is proper. Those serving the food too, whether slaves or hired workers, who are ugly, unpleasant to look at, wearing filthy clothes, foul-smelling, repulsive — who serve the rice-gruel and food carelessly, as though throwing it down — such attendants are suitable. Rice-gruel, cooked rice, and hard food, too, that is coarse, unattractive in color, made from millet, coarse grain, broken rice and the like, with sour buttermilk, a fermented rice-water sauce, and stale vegetable soup — anything whatsoever, merely enough to fill the stomach — is proper. And, as to posture, standing or walking is proper for him. As an object, whichever of the color-kasiṇas — blue and the rest — is impure in color is suitable. This is what is suitable for one of greedy temperament.

For one of hating temperament, a dwelling that is neither too high nor too low, well supplied with shade and water, with well-proportioned walls, pillars, and stairs, with garland-work and vine-relief work thoroughly finished, radiant with various kinds of decorative painting, its floor even, smooth, and soft — like a Brahma-mansion, adorned all over with flower-garlands and canopies of cloth of varied bright colors, with well-arranged, clean, and pleasing coverings on the bed and chair, fragrant here and there with scented flowers placed for perfuming the residence — a place that produces joy and gladness by the mere sight of it: such is suitable. And the path to that dwelling, too, free from every danger, clean, level, decorated and well-prepared, is proper. The furnishings of the dwelling here, too, in order to limit any harborage for insects, bed-bugs, snakes, and rats, should not be too many — just a single bed and chair is proper. His lower and upper garments, too, whichever is finest among Chinese silk, Somāra-cloth, silk, fine cotton, fine linen and the like, made single- or double-layered from that, light, well-dyed in a color befitting a recluse, and of pure color, is proper. A bowl, well-formed like a water-bubble, polished like a gem, spotless, of a color befitting a recluse and thoroughly pure, made of iron, is proper. An almsround path, free from danger, level, pleasant, with the village neither too far nor too near, is proper. An almsround village, too, where people, thinking "the noble one will now come," prepare a seat in a swept and sprinkled place, come out to meet him, take his bowl, lead him into the house, seat him on the prepared seat, and serve him respectfully with their own hands — such a village is proper. And whoever the servers are — handsome, pleasing, well-bathed, well-anointed, fragrant with the scent of incense and perfumed flowers, adorned with various brightly-dyed clean and beautiful garments and ornaments, careful in their work — such are suitable. Rice-gruel, food, and hard food, too, endowed with good color, smell, and taste, nourishing, pleasing, excellent in every respect, as much as needed, is proper. And, as to posture, lying down or sitting is proper for him. As an object, whichever of the color-kasiṇas — blue and the rest — is thoroughly pure in color is suitable. This is what is suitable for one of hating temperament.

For one of deluded temperament, a dwelling facing an open quarter, unobstructed, is proper — where, sitting, the open directions are visible; among the postures, walking is proper. But an object that is small — the size of a winnowing basket or a saucer — is not proper for him. For in a cramped space, the mind falls into even greater confusion; therefore, a large, expansive kasiṇa is proper. The rest is just as stated for one of hating temperament. This is what is suitable for one of deluded temperament.

For one of faithful temperament, everything stated in the arrangement for one of hating temperament is suitable. And, among objects, the recollection-subjects too are proper for him.

For one of intelligent temperament, there is, among dwellings and the rest, no such thing as "this is unsuitable."

For one of discursive-thought temperament, a dwelling that is open, facing a quarter, where, sitting, the delightful sights of parks, forests, and lotus-ponds, the succession of villages, towns, and countryside, and mountains blue in the distance are visible, is not proper — for that becomes a condition for the very scattering of his thoughts. Therefore he should dwell in a deep dwelling with a cave-like mouth, hidden by forest, like the Elephant's-Belly Overhang or the Mahinda Cave. And an expansive object, too, is not proper for him — for such a thing becomes a condition for his thoughts to run about even more. But a small one is proper.

The rest is just as stated for one of greedy temperament. This is what is suitable for one of discursive-thought temperament. This is the detailed treatment, in connection with "in accordance with his own temperament," of the temperaments that have come down here — by way of their classification, their source, their manner of being discerned, and the determination of what is suitable for each. But the meditation subject suited to temperament has not yet, in every respect, been made clear. For that will become clear of itself in the detailed treatment of the next topic-heading.

Therefore, as to what was said, "having taken up one of the forty meditation subjects" — herein, first, the determination of the meditation subjects should be understood by these ten methods: by way of the specified enumeration, by way of what leads to access or to absorption, by way of the distinction of jhāna, by way of transcending, by way of what may and may not be expanded, by way of the object, by way of the plane, by way of the manner of apprehension, by way of condition, and by way of suitability to temperament.

Herein, "by way of the specified enumeration": it was said, "among the forty meditation subjects" — these, then, are the forty meditation subjects: ten kasiṇas, ten foul objects, ten recollections, four divine abidings, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.

Herein, the earth kasiṇa, the water kasiṇa, the fire kasiṇa, the air kasiṇa, the blue kasiṇa, the yellow kasiṇa, the red kasiṇa, the white kasiṇa, the light kasiṇa, and the delimited-space kasiṇa — these are the ten kasiṇas.

The bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked-and-scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and the skeleton — these are the ten foul objects.

Recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dhamma, recollection of the Sangha, recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness occupied with the body, mindfulness of breathing, and recollection of peace — these are the ten recollections.

Loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity — these are the four divine abidings.

The base of infinite space, the base of infinite consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception — these are the four immaterial states. The perception of repulsiveness in food is the one perception. The defining of the four elements is the one defining. Thus the determination by way of specified enumeration should be understood.

"By way of what leads to access or to absorption": herein, setting aside mindfulness occupied with the body and mindfulness of breathing, the remaining eight recollections, the perception of repulsiveness in food, and the defining of the four elements — these ten meditation subjects lead only to access. The rest lead to absorption. Thus by way of what leads to access or absorption.

"By way of the distinction of jhāna": herein, among those leading to absorption, the ten kasiṇas together with mindfulness of breathing belong to all four jhānas. The ten foul objects together with mindfulness occupied with the body belong to the first jhāna only. The first three divine abidings belong to the first three jhānas. The fourth divine abiding and the four immaterial states belong to the fourth jhāna. Thus by way of the distinction of jhāna.

"By way of transcending": there are two kinds of transcending — the transcending of factors and the transcending of the object. Herein, in all the meditation subjects belonging to the three or four jhānas, there is a transcending of factors, since the second jhāna and the rest are to be attained, on those very same objects, by transcending applied thought, sustained thought, and the other jhāna factors. Likewise in the fourth divine abiding: for that too is to be attained, on the very same object as loving-kindness and the rest, by transcending mere joy. But in the four immaterial states, there is a transcending of the object. For the base of infinite space is to be attained by transcending one of the first nine kasiṇas. And the base of infinite consciousness and the rest are attained by transcending infinite space and so on in turn. In the rest, there is no transcending. Thus by way of transcending.

"By way of what may and may not be expanded": among these forty meditation subjects, only the ten kasiṇas should be expanded. For, over however much space one pervades with the kasiṇa, within that space one becomes able to hear sounds with the divine ear-element, to see forms with the divine eye, and to know the minds of other beings with one's own mind. But mindfulness occupied with the body and the foul objects should not be expanded. Why? Because they are delimited by their location, and because there is no benefit in expanding them. And their being delimited by location will become clear in the method of their development, described later. But if these are expanded, only the mass of corpses grows larger; there is no benefit whatsoever. And this was said in the explanation of the outcast-boy's question: "Blessed One, the perception of form is vivid, but the perception of the skeleton is faint." For there, the perception of form was said to be vivid by way of the expansion of its sign; the perception of the skeleton was said to be faint by way of its non-expansion.

But as for what is said, "by the perception of bones alone, he pervaded this whole earth" (Theragāthā 18) — that was said by way of the manner in which the sign appears to one who has already gained mastery of that meditation. For just as, in the time of King Dhammāsoka, a karavīka-bird, seeing its own reflection all around on mirror-covered walls, and perceiving karavīka-birds in every direction, uttered its sweet cry — so too the elder, having gained mastery of the perception of bones, seeing the sign appearing in every direction, thought that the entire earth was filled with bones.

If this is so, one might object, then the statement that the jhānas based on foulness have an immeasurable object is contradicted. But it is not contradicted. For some take up the sign in a large bloated corpse or skeleton; some in a small one. By this method, for some the jhāna has a limited object; for some, an immeasurable object. Or, whoever, not seeing the danger in expanding it, does expand it — with reference to that, it was said to have an "immeasurable object." But, since there is no benefit, they should not be expanded.

And just as these, so too the rest should not be expanded. Why? For, among these, if one expands the sign of mindfulness of breathing, only the mass of air increases, and it is in any case delimited by its location. Thus, because it has this drawback, and because it is delimited by location, it should not be expanded. The divine abidings have beings as their object; if one expands their sign, only the mass of beings would grow larger, and there is no purpose in that; therefore that too should not be expanded. But as for what is said, "with a mind accompanied by loving-kindness, having pervaded one direction" (D.N. 1.556) and so forth — that was said only by way of the inclusion of beings. For one who develops it, including the beings of one direction in due order — one dwelling, two dwellings, and so on — is said to "pervade one direction." Not one who expands the sign. For here, there is not even any counterpart-sign at all. As for what he would expand — even the "limited" or "immeasurable" quality of the object here should be understood only by way of the inclusion of beings. Among the objects of the immaterial states, too, infinite space is merely the removal of the kasiṇa; for that should be brought to mind only by way of the disappearance of the kasiṇa. Beyond that, even if one tries to expand it, nothing further results. Infinite consciousness, being a state with its own individual nature, cannot be expanded — for it is not possible to expand a state that has its own individual nature. The base of nothingness is the disappearance of consciousness, being merely the non-existence of consciousness. The object of the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, too, being precisely a state with its own individual nature, should not be expanded. The rest, having no visual sign — for it would only be a counterpart-sign that could properly be called "to be expanded." And for recollection of the Buddha and the rest, the object is not a counterpart-sign at all; therefore that should not be expanded. Thus by way of what may and may not be expanded.

"By way of the object": among these forty meditation subjects, the ten kasiṇas, the ten foul objects, mindfulness of breathing, and mindfulness occupied with the body — these twenty-two have a counterpart-sign as their object. The rest do not have a counterpart-sign as their object. Likewise, among the ten recollections, setting aside mindfulness of breathing and mindfulness occupied with the body, the remaining eight recollections, the perception of repulsiveness in food, the defining of the four elements, the base of infinite consciousness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception — these twelve have a state of individual nature as their object. The ten kasiṇas, the ten foul objects, mindfulness of breathing, and mindfulness occupied with the body — these twenty-two have a meditative sign as their object. The remaining six have an object that cannot properly be so described. Likewise, the festering corpse, the bleeding corpse, the worm-infested corpse, mindfulness of breathing, the water kasiṇa, the fire kasiṇa, the air kasiṇa, and, in the light kasiṇa, the object which is the halo of light around the sun and so on — these eight have a moving object, but only in the preliminary stage; the counterpart-sign, however, is always perfectly still. The rest do not have a moving object. Thus by way of the object.

"By way of the plane": herein, the ten foul objects, mindfulness occupied with the body, and the perception of repulsiveness in food — these twelve do not occur among deities. Those twelve, together with mindfulness of breathing — these thirteen do not occur in the Brahma-world. But in the immaterial existence, nothing occurs apart from the four immaterial states. Among human beings, all of them occur. Thus by way of the plane.

"By way of the manner of apprehension": herein, the determination should be understood by way of apprehension through sight, through touch, and through hearing. Herein, setting aside the air kasiṇa, the remaining nine kasiṇas and the ten foul objects — these nineteen should be apprehended through sight; the meaning is, their sign should be apprehended, in the preliminary stage, by looking with the eye. In mindfulness occupied with the body, the first five parts, ending in skin, should be apprehended through sight, the rest through hearing; thus its object should be apprehended through sight and hearing. Mindfulness of breathing should be apprehended through touch; the air kasiṇa through sight and touch; the remaining eighteen should be apprehended through hearing. The divine abiding of equanimity and the four immaterial states — these should not be taken up by a beginner. The remaining thirty-five may be taken up by a beginner. Thus by way of the manner of apprehension.

"By way of condition": among these meditation subjects, setting aside the space kasiṇa, the remaining nine kasiṇas are conditions for the immaterial states; the ten kasiṇas are conditions for the higher direct knowledges; the first three divine abidings are a condition for the fourth divine abiding; each lower immaterial state is a condition for the one above it; the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is a condition for the attainment of cessation; and all of them are conditions for a pleasant abiding here and now, for insight, and for favorable states of existence to be attained. Thus by way of condition.

"By way of suitability to temperament": herein, the determination should be understood by way of suitability to the temperaments. Namely: for one of greedy temperament, first, the ten foul objects and mindfulness occupied with the body — these eleven meditation subjects are suitable. For one of hating temperament: the four divine abidings and the four color-kasiṇas — eight. For one of deluded temperament, and for one of discursive-thought temperament: only the one meditation subject, mindfulness of breathing. For one of faithful temperament: the first six recollections. For one of intelligent temperament: mindfulness of death, recollection of peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of repulsiveness in food — four. The remaining kasiṇas, and the four immaterial states, are suitable for all temperaments. And, among the kasiṇas, whichever is small is additionally suitable for one of discursive-thought temperament; whichever is expansive, for one of deluded temperament.

Thus, herein, the determination by way of suitability to temperament should be understood. And all of this was stated by way of direct opposition to the defilement, and by way of what is especially suitable. But there is no wholesome development at all that fails to suppress greed and the rest, or that is unhelpful to faith and the rest. And this was said in the Meghiya Sutta —

"Four things should be further developed: foulness should be developed for the abandonment of greed; loving-kindness should be developed for the abandonment of ill will; mindfulness of breathing should be developed for the cutting off of thought; the perception of impermanence should be developed for the uprooting of the conceit 'I am.'"

And in the Rāhula Sutta too, by the method beginning "Rāhula, develop the development of loving-kindness" (M.N. 2.120), seven meditation subjects were spoken of for one and the same person. Therefore, without insisting rigidly on the mere wording, the underlying intention should be sought everywhere. This is the determination of the discourse on meditation subjects, in connection with "having taken up a meditation subject."

"Having taken up": this, now, is the explanation of the meaning of this word. By that same method already stated in "that meditator, having approached a good friend able to give a meditation subject" — having approached a good friend of the kind described, and having surrendered himself either to the Buddha, the Blessed One, or to the teacher, and having become one of accomplished disposition and accomplished resolve, he should ask for a meditation subject.

Herein, he should surrender himself to the Buddha, the Blessed One, thus: "I give up this selfhood of mine to you, O Blessed One." For thus, without having surrendered himself, one dwelling in remote lodgings, when a fearsome object comes into range and he is unable to stand firm, might descend to the village-edge, become mixed up with laypeople, fall into improper livelihood, and meet with ruin and calamity. But for one whose self has been surrendered, even when a fearsome object comes into range, fear does not arise. For, reflecting, "Have you not, wise one, already surrendered your self to the Buddhas beforehand?" — only gladness arises in him. For just as, if a man had a superb Kāsi-cloth, and it were eaten by mice or insects, displeasure would arise in him — but if he should give it to a robe-less monk, then, even seeing it being cut into pieces by that monk, only gladness would arise in him — this should be understood as a corresponding case.

And surrendering himself to the teacher, too, he should say: "I give up this selfhood of mine to you, venerable sir." For one whose self is thus not surrendered either becomes one who cannot be corrected, or is hard to speak to and unresponsive to instruction, or goes wherever he pleases without asking the teacher's leave; the teacher does not embrace such a one with material things or with the Dhamma, and does not teach him hidden texts. He, not obtaining this twofold embrace, does not gain a footing in the Dispensation, and before long meets with either immorality or a return to lay life. But one whose self is surrendered is neither uncorrectable nor one who goes wherever he pleases; he is easy to speak to, his conduct entirely dependent on the teacher. He, obtaining this twofold embrace from the teacher, attains growth, increase, and fullness in the Dispensation, like the pupils of the Elder Cūḷapiṇḍapātika Tissa.

It is said that three monks came to the elder's presence. Of these, one said: "Venerable sir, if told 'for your sake,' I would be able to throw myself off a cliff a hundred men high." The second said: "Venerable sir, if told 'for your sake,' I would be able to rub away this very body of mine on a rock-surface, starting from the heel, until nothing remained." The third said: "Venerable sir, if told 'for your sake,' I would be able to hold my in-breaths and out-breaths and bring about my own death." The elder, thinking "these monks are capable," explained the meditation subject to them. They, standing firm in his instruction, all three attained arahantship. This is the benefit in the surrender of self. For this reason it was said, "having surrendered himself either to the Buddha, the Blessed One, or to the teacher."

"And having become one of accomplished disposition and accomplished resolve": herein, that meditator should be one of accomplished disposition by way of six factors — non-greed and the rest. For one of such accomplished disposition attains one or another of the three kinds of enlightenment. As it is said: "Six dispositions conduce to the ripening of enlightenment for Bodhisattas: Bodhisattas of a disposition toward non-greed, seeing the danger in greed; Bodhisattas of a disposition toward non-hatred, seeing the danger in hatred; Bodhisattas of a disposition toward non-delusion, seeing the danger in delusion; Bodhisattas of a disposition toward renunciation, seeing the danger in household life; Bodhisattas of a disposition toward seclusion, seeing the danger in company; Bodhisattas of a disposition toward escape, seeing the danger in all destinies of existence." For whatever stream-enterers, once-returners, non-returners, arahants, Paccekabuddhas, and Fully Enlightened Buddhas there have been, are, or will be, in the past, future, or present — all of them attained the distinction proper to each by these very same six factors. Therefore one should be of accomplished disposition by these six factors. And, as to being resolved toward that goal, one should be accomplished in resolve — the meaning being that one should be resolved toward concentration, regarding concentration as weighty, inclined toward concentration; and resolved toward Nibbāna, regarding Nibbāna as weighty, inclined toward Nibbāna.

For one thus of accomplished disposition and resolve, asking for a meditation subject, a teacher who has attained the knowledge of penetrating minds should know his temperament by observing the movement of his mind. By another teacher, it should be known by asking in such ways as these: "What is your temperament? Or, which mental states occur predominantly in you? Or, what is comfortable for you to attend to? Or, toward which meditation subject does your mind incline?" Having thus known it, the meditation subject suited to his temperament should be explained.

And one explaining it should explain it in one of three ways. To one who has already learned a meditation subject elsewhere, it should be given after having him recite it back in one or two sittings. To one dwelling nearby, it should be explained on each occasion he comes. To one who, having learned it, wishes to go elsewhere, it should be explained neither too briefly nor too elaborately.

Herein, first, one explaining the earth kasiṇa should explain these nine aspects: the four faults of a kasiṇa, the making of a kasiṇa, the method of developing it once made, the twofold sign, the twofold concentration, the sevenfold suitable and unsuitable, the tenfold skill in absorption, the balancing of energy, and the procedure of absorption. For the remaining meditation subjects too, what is appropriate to each should be explained. All of that will become clear in the method of their development.

But while the meditation subject is thus being explained, that meditator should listen having taken up the sign. "Having taken up the sign" means: fixing firmly in mind each such aspect as "this is the earlier phrase, this is the later phrase, this is its meaning, this is its intention, this is its illustration." For by one who listens carefully, having thus taken up the sign, the meditation subject is well grasped. Then, in dependence on that, distinction is accomplished for him — not for another. This is the explanation of the meaning of the word "having taken up."

With this much, the words "having approached a good friend, and having taken up, in accordance with his own temperament, one of the forty meditation subjects" have been explained in every respect.

Thus, in the Visuddhimagga, composed for the gladdening of good people, in the section on the development of concentration, this is the third chapter, called the Description of the Taking-Up of a Meditation Subject.