The Ground of Wisdom, Completed

Now, it was said thus: "the states classed as aggregates, sense bases, elements, faculties, truths, dependent origination, and so on, are the ground." Among these states forming the ground of this understanding, dependent origination itself, together with the dependently arisen states included under the word "and so on," are what remain; the order of exposition has therefore now arrived at them.

Herein, the states beginning with ignorance should first be understood as "dependent origination." For this was said by the Blessed One — "and what, bhikkhus, is dependent origination? Dependent on ignorance, bhikkhus, are formations; dependent on formations, consciousness; dependent on consciousness, name-and-form; dependent on name-and-form, the sixfold base; dependent on the sixfold base, contact; dependent on contact, feeling; dependent on feeling, craving; dependent on craving, clinging; dependent on clinging, being; dependent on being, birth; dependent on birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair come to be. Thus is the arising of this whole mass of suffering. This, bhikkhus, is called dependent origination."

But aging-and-death and the rest should be understood as "dependently arisen states." For this was said by the Blessed One — "and what, bhikkhus, are dependently arisen states? Aging-and-death, bhikkhus, is impermanent, conditioned, dependently arisen, subject to destruction, subject to falling away, subject to fading, subject to cessation. Birth, bhikkhus … being … clinging … craving … feeling … contact … the sixfold base … name-and-form … consciousness … formations … ignorance, bhikkhus, is impermanent, conditioned, dependently arisen, subject to destruction, subject to falling away, subject to fading, subject to cessation. These, bhikkhus, are called dependently arisen states."

This, herein, is the summary: "dependent origination" should be understood as the conditioning states; "dependently arisen states" as the states brought into being by those various conditions. How is this to be known? By the Blessed One's own word. For the Blessed One, in the discourse teaching dependent origination and dependently arisen states, said — "and what, bhikkhus, is dependent origination? Dependent on birth, bhikkhus, is aging-and-death. Whether Tathāgatas arise or do not arise, that property still stands — the stableness of the Dhamma, the fixed course of the Dhamma, specific conditionality. The Tathāgata awakens to this and breaks through to it; having awakened to it and broken through to it, he explains it, teaches it, proclaims it, establishes it, discloses it, analyzes it, makes it plain, and says: 'See!' Dependent on birth, bhikkhus, is aging-and-death. Dependent on being, bhikkhus, is birth … dependent on ignorance, bhikkhus, are formations. Whether Tathāgatas arise or do not arise … he says: 'See!' Dependent on ignorance, bhikkhus, are formations. Thus, bhikkhus, the suchness therein, the unfailingness, the not-otherwiseness, the specific conditionality — this, bhikkhus, is called dependent origination."

In teaching dependent origination in this way, it is precisely the conditioning states themselves that are called "dependent origination" under such synonyms as "suchness." Therefore dependent origination should be understood as having, for its characteristic, the being-a-condition of such states as aging-and-death; for its function, the yoking of beings to suffering; and for its manifestation, a wrong path.

And this is called "suchness," because each and every such state comes to be through its own respective conditions, neither less nor more; it is called "unfailingness," because, once the conditions have arrived at concurrence, there is not, even for a moment, any failure of the states produced from them to arise; it is called "not-otherwiseness," because there is no arising of one state through conditions belonging to another; and, with reference to these same states just spoken of — aging-and-death and the rest — by way of their condition, or by way of the collection of their conditions, it is called "specific conditionality."

Herein this is the literal sense: the conditions of these states are "conditions-for-this." The very state of being conditions-for-this is "specific conditionality" — or, the collection of the conditions-for-this is "specific conditionality." The precise grammatical derivation here, however, should be sought from the treatises on word-formation.

But some say that dependent origination is mere arising — arising that occurs dependently and rightly, without depending on such causes as a "primordial nature" or a "creator person" as imagined by sectarian teachers. This is untenable. Why? Because there is no discourse saying so, because it contradicts other discourses, because the profound method could then not arise, and because of a difference in grammatical construction.

For there is no discourse that says "dependent origination is mere arising." And for one who calls that "dependent origination," a contradiction arises with the Discourse on the Partial Dwelling. How so? From the Blessed One's own statement — "then, in the first watch of the night, the Blessed One attended to dependent origination in forward and reverse order" — attention to dependent origination was the dwelling of the newly, fully awakened One, and the "partial dwelling" spoken of elsewhere was a dwelling in one part of that very dwelling. As it is said: "bhikkhus, in whatever dwelling I dwelt when newly, fully awakened, in a part of that dwelling I dwelt." And there he dwelt by seeing the mode of the conditions, not by seeing mere arising. Thus, for one who calls mere arising "dependent origination," a contradiction with the Discourse on the Partial Dwelling arises. Likewise a contradiction with the Discourse to Kaccāna.

For in the Discourse to Kaccāna, too, it is said: "Kaccāna, for one who sees, with right understanding, the arising of the world as it really is, the notion of 'there is not,' with respect to the world, does not occur." This proclaims dependent origination in forward order — "the arising of the world" — by way of the world's condition, for the purpose of uprooting the view of annihilation; it does not proclaim mere arising. For it is not by seeing mere arising that the view of annihilation is uprooted, but by seeing the non-continuation of the conditions — since, when the conditions do not continue, the result does not continue either.

As for "because the profound method could then not arise": this was said by the Blessed One — "profound, Ānanda, is this dependent origination, and profound is its appearance." Now, profundity is of four kinds, which we shall describe further on; this is not found in mere arising. And this dependent origination is described as adorned with a fourfold method; that fourfold method, too, is not found in mere arising. Therefore, since the profound method is not found there either, dependent origination is not mere arising.

As for "because of a difference in grammatical construction": the gerund "having depended on" [paṭicca], when used with a single agent for both actions and referring to a prior time, does yield sense — as in "and having depended on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises." But here, when used together with the noun "arising" [uppāda], it results in a grammatical mismatch, since there is no single agent performing both the depending and the arising; and it establishes no sense at all. So, by reason of this difference in grammatical construction too, dependent origination is not mere arising.

Here it might be said: "we shall construe it together with the verb 'is' — 'dependent origination is [mere arising].'" That will not do. Why? Because no such construction is ever used, and because it would entail the fault that arising itself would then have to have an arising. "Bhikkhus, I shall teach you dependent origination. And what, bhikkhus, is dependent origination? … this, bhikkhus, is called dependent origination." In none of these passages is the word "is" construed together with it in this way, nor does "arising" occur as a separate event alongside it. If it did occur separately, then arising itself would have to have an arising.

There are also those who think: "the being-thus of the conditions-for-this is specific conditionality; and 'being-thus' here means that particular mode, belonging to ignorance and the other factors, which is the cause of the appearance of formations and the rest — so it is this alteration within the formations and so forth that is meant by 'dependent origination.'" This too is untenable. Why? Because ignorance and the rest are spoken of as the cause itself. For the Blessed One said: "therefore, Ānanda, this itself is the cause, this the source, this the origin, this the condition of aging-and-death — namely birth … of formations — namely ignorance." Thus it is ignorance and the other factors themselves that are called the cause, not some alteration belonging to them. Therefore it should be understood that the statement "'dependent origination' should be understood as the conditioning states" was rightly made.

Now, the impression may arise that this word "paṭiccasamuppāda," by the shading of its literal form, refers to nothing but "arising." That impression should be laid to rest by grasping the meaning of this term as follows. For the Blessed One [meant it thus] — "since this word is used for a collection of states occurring in two ways from that condition, it is said, by a figure of speech transferring the name of the result, to be 'that whose condition is this.'"

For they intend this word "paṭiccasamuppāda" in a twofold sense, with reference to that very collection of states occurring by way of conditionality. First: because, when relied upon, it conduces to welfare and happiness, the wise consider it worthy of being relied upon — hence "paṭicca," the depended-upon. And it arises together and rightly, not singly one by one, and not without a cause — hence "samuppāda," the rightly-co-arisen. Thus, being both "paṭicca" and "samuppāda," it is "paṭiccasamuppāda." Further, it is "samuppāda" because it arises together; and it is also "paṭiccasamuppāda" in the sense that it occurs only in dependence on the concurrence of conditions, never apart from them. And since this very collection of causes is itself the condition for that co-arising, on account of being its condition, it is called, in this further sense too, "paṭiccasamuppāda" — just as, in ordinary usage, the cause of phlegm, namely raw sugar, is called "phlegm-sugar," and just as, in the Teaching, the arising of Buddhas, being the cause of happiness, is called "the happy arising of Buddhas" — so too, it should be understood, "paṭiccasamuppāda" is spoken of by a figure of speech naming the cause after its result.

Or again — "this collection of causes is called 'paṭicca' because it is said to have gone, from here, face to face; and it is called 'samuppāda' because it makes conditions that are together arise." For this collection of causes, set out under the heading of each single cause beginning with ignorance for the appearance of formations and the rest, is called "paṭicca," taking it that, in the sense of jointly producing a shared result, and in the sense of no member being deficient, each member of this concurrence has "gone face to face" with the others. And this same collection, since it produces, only in their togetherness, states that occur inseparably from one another, is also called "samuppāda." Thus, being both "paṭicca" and "samuppāda" in this sense as well, it is "paṭiccasamuppāda."

Yet another method — "since this condition-state produces states only in dependence on one another, equally and together, therefore it has here been spoken of thus by the Sage." For among the conditions set out under the headings of ignorance and the rest, whichever conditions give rise to a state such as the formations are incapable of doing so without depending on one another, when any one of them is lacking. Therefore, since this condition-state gives rise to states only in dependence on one another, equally and together — not singly, one part at a time, nor by way of a before-and-after sequence — the Sage, skilled in usage that follows the meaning, spoke of it thus in this connection: that is, he spoke of it precisely as "paṭiccasamuppāda."

And by speaking in this way — "by the former term, the non-existence of eternalism and the like is shown; by the latter term, the refutation of annihilationism and the like; by the two together, the method is made clear." "By the former term": by the term "paṭicca," which shows the concurrence of conditions — since occurring states depend for their occurrence on the concurrence of conditions — the non-existence of eternalism, of the causeless-cause doctrine, of the unequal-cause doctrine, and of the controlling-agent doctrine, divisions of "eternalism and the like," is shown. "And by the latter term": by the term "samuppāda," which shows the arising of states — since states arise from the concurrence of conditions — the doctrines of annihilation, of non-existence after death, and of the inefficacy of action are refuted; thus the refutation of annihilationism and the like is shown. "By the two together": by the whole expression "paṭiccasamuppāda," since those very states come to be through the uninterrupted continuity of their respective concurrences of conditions, the middle way is shown — the abandoning of the doctrine "the one who acts is the one who experiences the result" and "one acts, another experiences," the not settling into a fixed local idiom, and the not overstepping the bounds of conventional designation: this method is thereby made clear. This, then, is the meaning of the mere word "paṭiccasamuppāda."

Now, as for this teaching which the Blessed One, in teaching dependent origination, set down by the method beginning "dependent on ignorance are formations" — one composing a commentary on its meaning must do so having descended into the sphere of the analytical method, without misrepresenting the teachers, without straying into one's own school's dogma, without dragging in other schools' doctrines, without contradicting the discourses, in conformity with the discipline, having regard for the great standards of reference, illuminating the Dhamma, drawing the sense together, and — having brought the very same meaning round again — setting it out also by other, further methods of exposition. For these reasons a commentary on its meaning must be composed with such care; and, in its own nature too, a commentary on the meaning of dependent origination is exceedingly difficult. As the ancient teachers have said: "truth, a being, relinking, and the mode of conditions — these four things are hard to see, and hard indeed to teach."

Therefore, having carefully weighed the fact that a commentary on the meaning of dependent origination is not easy except for those who have attained both to scriptural learning and to personal realization — "wishing today to speak a commentary on the mode of conditions, I find no foothold, as though plunged into the ocean. Yet this Dispensation is adorned with manifold methods of exposition, and the path of the earlier teachers still flows on, unbroken. Therefore, relying on both of these, I shall begin a commentary on the meaning of this teaching; listen to it with minds composed."

For this was said by the earlier teachers — "whoever should listen to me, giving due weight to what is said, would gain a distinction over what came before; and having gained that distinction over what came before, would go to where the Lord of Death cannot see."

Thus, in such expressions as "dependent on ignorance are formations," from the very outset — "by way of the division of the teaching, by meaning, by characteristic and by kind, and by the determination of the factors — the discernment should be understood." Herein, "by way of the division of the teaching": just as, among four men gathering a creeper, one may proceed from the beginning, or from the middle, up to the end, or, likewise, from the end, or from the middle, back to the beginning — so too the teaching of dependent origination is fourfold.

Just as, among the four men gathering the creeper, one first sees only the root of the creeper; he cuts it at the root, pulls out the whole of it, and takes it to his work — so too the Blessed One teaches dependent origination in full, from the very beginning up to the very end: "thus, bhikkhus, dependent on ignorance are formations … dependent on birth is aging-and-death."

But just as, among those men, one first sees the middle of the creeper; he cuts it in the middle and pulls out only the upper portion, taking it to his work — so too the Blessed One teaches, starting from the middle up to the very end: "in one who delights in, welcomes, and remains holding to that feeling, delight arises. Whatever delight there is in feelings, that is clinging. Dependent on his clinging is being, dependent on being is birth."

And just as, among those men, one first sees the tip of the creeper; taking hold of the tip, and following it, he pulls out the whole of it right back to the root, taking it to his work — so too the Blessed One teaches, starting from the very end back to the very beginning: "now it was said, 'dependent on birth is aging-and-death' — is it, bhikkhus, that aging-and-death is dependent on birth, or is it not so, or how do you understand this?" "Aging-and-death, venerable sir, is dependent on birth; thus do we understand this — that aging-and-death is dependent on birth." "Dependent on being is birth … dependent on ignorance are formations — now it was said, 'dependent on ignorance are formations' — is it, bhikkhus, that formations are dependent on ignorance, or is it not so, or how do you understand this?"

And just as, among those men, one first sees only the middle of the creeper; he cuts it in the middle and, descending downward, pulls it out right back to the root, taking it to his work — so too the Blessed One teaches, starting from the middle back to the beginning: "and these four kinds of nutriment, bhikkhus — what is their source, what their origin, from what are they born, from what do they arise? These four kinds of nutriment have craving as their source, craving as their origin; they are born from craving, they arise from craving. And craving — what is its source? … feeling … contact … the sixfold base … name-and-form … consciousness … formations — what is their source? … formations have ignorance as their source … they arise from ignorance" — thus he teaches, starting from the middle back to the beginning.

Now, why is ignorance spoken of here as the starting point — is ignorance, like the "primordial nature" of those who hold the primordial-nature doctrine, an uncaused root-cause of the world? It is not uncaused. For it is said: "from the arising of the taints, there is the arising of ignorance" — thus a cause of ignorance is stated. But is there, then, some manner of speaking by which it could be a root-cause? What is it? It is its serving as the head in the discourse on the round.

For when teaching the discourse on the round, the Blessed One speaks by making one of two states the head: either ignorance, as he said — "bhikkhus, no first point of ignorance is discerned, such that one could say, 'before this there was no ignorance, and afterward it came to be'; yet this much is said — it is discerned that ignorance has a specific condition" — or the craving for being, as he said — "bhikkhus, no first point of the craving for being is discerned, such that one could say, 'before this there was no craving for being, and afterward it came to be'; yet this much is said — it is discerned that the craving for being has a specific condition."

But why, in teaching the discourse on the round, does the Blessed One speak by making these two states the head? Because they are the special cause of the kamma that leads to a good or a bad destination. For ignorance is the special cause of kamma leading to a bad destination. Why? Because it is like this: a cow being driven to slaughter, overpowered by the heat of the fire, by blows of the goad, and by exhaustion — that cow, in the feverish state of her exhaustion, drinks hot water, though it gives her no real relish and is, moreover, harmful to her; so too a worldling overpowered by ignorance, overcome by the burning of the defilements, undertakes many kinds of kamma leading to a bad destination — such as the killing of living beings — kamma that gives him no real relish and, since it casts him down into a bad destination, is harmful to him as well. But the craving for being is the special cause of kamma leading to a good destination. Why? Because it is like this: that same cow, out of craving for cool water, drinks cool water, which does give relish and does relieve her exhaustion; so too a worldling overcome by the craving for being, free from the burning of the defilements and finding his own relish, undertakes many kinds of kamma leading to a good destination — such as abstinence from the killing of living beings — by attaining thereby a good destination and relieving his own suffering and exhaustion of a bad destination.

Now, among these two states that serve as the head in the discourse on the round, in some places the Blessed One teaches a discourse rooted in a single factor. For example: "thus, bhikkhus, formations have ignorance as their support; consciousness has formations as its support," and so on. Likewise: "bhikkhus, for one who dwells contemplating gratification in things that can be clung to, craving increases; dependent on craving is clinging," and so on. In some places he teaches a discourse rooted in both. For example: "bhikkhus, for a fool obstructed by ignorance and bound to craving, this body has thus come to be. So there is just this: this body, and name-and-form external to it — this pair. Dependent on this pair is contact; there are just the six sense bases, by which, when touched, the fool experiences pleasure and pain," and so on. Among these teachings, "dependent on ignorance are formations" should be understood as, here, a discourse rooted in a single factor, by way of ignorance. Thus, so far, the discernment by way of the division of the teaching should be understood.

"By meaning" means: by the meaning of the terms beginning with ignorance. For example: bodily misconduct and the rest are called "not-to-be-found," in the sense that they are not fit to be pursued — meaning that they ought not to be obtained. And that which finds this not-to-be-found: that is ignorance. Conversely, bodily good conduct and the rest are called "to-be-found"; and that which does not find this to-be-found: that too is ignorance. It is also ignorance in that it makes unknown the sense of "heaping" belonging to the aggregates, the sense of "base-hood" belonging to the sense bases, the sense of "voidness" belonging to the elements, the sense of "dominance" belonging to the faculties, and the sense of "suchness" belonging to the truths. It is also ignorance in that it makes unknown the fourfold sense — stated by way of oppression and the rest — belonging to suffering and the other truths. It is ignorance in that, throughout the beginningless round, it drives beings on through every womb, destination, form of being, station of consciousness, and abode of beings. In the ultimate sense, it is ignorance in that it runs after women, men, and the like, which do not really exist, while it does not run after the aggregates and the like, which do exist. Moreover, it is ignorance also in the sense that it conceals the states that are the physical basis and object of eye-consciousness and the rest, and the states that are dependently arisen and dependently arising.

That, depending on which, the result comes — that is the condition. "Depending on" means: not without it, not having disregarded it. "Comes" means: arises and occurs. Furthermore, the sense of a condition is the sense of being a help. It is both ignorance and a condition — hence "the condition that is ignorance." Hence, "dependent on ignorance."

Those that fashion the conditioned are "formations." Now, formations are twofold: the formations that are "dependent on ignorance," and those that simply come under the word "formation." Herein, the meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable formations — three — and the bodily, verbal, and mental formations — three — these six are "the formations dependent on ignorance." All of these are nothing but mundane wholesome and unwholesome volition.

But these four — the conditioned-formation, the produced-formation, the producing-formation, and the exertion-formation — come under the mere word "formation." Herein, all conditioned states, spoken of in such passages as "impermanent indeed are formations," are called "conditioned-formations." The states of form and non-form belonging to the three planes, brought about by kamma, are called, in the commentaries, "produced-formations"; these too are included under this same "impermanent indeed are formations," though no place is found where they are mentioned separately under that name. Wholesome and unwholesome volition belonging to the three planes, however, is called the "producing-formation"; the place where it is so mentioned is found — in such passages as "this person, bhikkhus, gone into ignorance, produces a meritorious formation." And bodily and mental effort is called the "exertion-formation"; it is mentioned in such passages as "having gone as far as the exertion-formation can reach, it stood still, as though struck against something."

And it is not only these: there are also many other formations that come under the word "formation," in the manner of such passages as "friend Visākha, for a bhikkhu entering upon the cessation of perception and feeling, the verbal formation ceases first, then the bodily formation, then the mental formation." Among these, there is no formation that would not be included among the conditioned-formations. What is said hereafter, in such contexts as "dependent on formations, consciousness," should be understood in just the way already stated.

As for the rest, not otherwise mentioned: it cognizes, hence "consciousness." It bends toward its object, hence "name." It is deformed, hence "form." It stretches out and extends what has arisen, or leads onward what has extended, hence "sense base." It touches, hence "contact." It feels, hence "feeling." It thirsts, hence "craving." It grasps, hence "clinging." It comes to be, and it causes kamma to come to be, hence "being." The being-born is "birth." The growing-old is "aging." That by which beings die is "death." The grieving is "sorrow." The lamenting is "lamentation." That which is hard to bear is "pain" — or, by way of its rising and its persisting, that which is torn in two moments is also "pain." The state of a dejected mind is "displeasure." Intense distress is "despair."

"Come to be" means: are produced. And this word "come to be" is to be construed not only with sorrow and the rest, but with every single term. Otherwise, when it is said "dependent on ignorance are formations," it would not be clear what they do; but when the construing is "come to be," the sense is complete — it is both ignorance and a condition, hence "the condition that is ignorance" — so that "dependent on ignorance, formations come to be" establishes the determination of condition and conditioned-arisen. The same method applies throughout.

"Thus" points to the method just set out. By it, it is shown that this comes about through none other than the causes beginning with ignorance, not through a creator-god's fashioning or the like. "Of this" means: of what has just been described. "Whole" means: unmixed with anything else, or entire. "Mass of suffering" means: the aggregate of suffering — not a being, and not an aggregate of pleasure, beauty, and the like. "Arising" means: production. "Comes to be" means: is produced. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of meaning should be understood.

"By characteristic and so forth" means: by the characteristic and so forth of ignorance and the rest. Namely: ignorance has the characteristic of unknowing, the function of bewildering, it manifests as concealment, and has the taints as its proximate cause. Formations have the characteristic of fashioning, the function of accumulating kamma, they manifest as volition, and have ignorance as their proximate cause. Consciousness has the characteristic of cognizing, the function of going before its associated states, it manifests as rebirth-linking, and has formations as its proximate cause — or, alternatively, the physical basis and object as its proximate cause. Name has the characteristic of bending toward its object, the function of conascent association, it manifests as inseparability from its associated states, and has consciousness as its proximate cause. Form has the characteristic of being deformed, the function of scattering, it manifests as indeterminate, and has consciousness as its proximate cause. The sixfold base has the characteristic of being a sense base, the function of seeing and so forth, each according to its own kind, it manifests as the state of being a physical basis and a door, and has name-and-form as its proximate cause. Contact has the characteristic of touching, the function of impinging, it manifests as a coincidence of consciousness, object, and physical basis, and has the sixfold base as its proximate cause. Feeling has the characteristic of experiencing, the function of relishing the flavor of the object, it manifests as pleasure or pain, and has contact as its proximate cause. Craving has the characteristic of being a cause, the function of delighting, it manifests as a state of never being satisfied, and has feeling as its proximate cause. Clinging has the characteristic of grasping, the function of not letting go, it manifests as the firmness of craving and as wrong view, and has craving as its proximate cause. Being has the characteristic of kamma and the result of kamma, the function of causing-to-be and of becoming, it manifests as wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate states, and has clinging as its proximate cause. The characteristics and so forth of birth and the rest should be understood in just the way already stated in the discussion of the truths. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of characteristic and so forth should also be understood.

"By way of being one kind and so forth": herein, ignorance, by its being unknowing, non-seeing, delusion, and the like, is of one kind. By way of non-application and wrong application, it is of two kinds; likewise by way of being accompanied or unaccompanied by instigation. By way of association with the three kinds of feeling, it is of three kinds. By way of obstructing the penetration of the four truths, it is of four kinds. By way of concealing the drawbacks of the five destinations and the rest, it is of five kinds. And by way of door and object, a sixfold nature should be understood, as with all formless states.

Formations, by their being states with taints, resultant states, and the like, are of one kind. By way of wholesome and unwholesome, they are of two kinds; likewise by way of limited and exalted, inferior and medium, fixed-in-wrongness and not-fixed. By way of being meritorious formations and the rest, they are of three kinds. By way of leading to the four kinds of rebirth, they are of four kinds. By way of leading to the five destinations, they are of five kinds.

Consciousness, by its being mundane, resultant, and the like, is of one kind. By way of having roots or being rootless, it is of two kinds. By way of being included in the three kinds of being, by association with the three kinds of feeling, and by being rootless, having two roots, or having three roots, it is of three kinds. By way of womb and destination, it is of four kinds, and of five kinds.

Name-and-form, by its resting upon consciousness and by its being conditioned by kamma, is of one kind. By way of having an object or being without an object, it is of two kinds. By way of past and so forth, it is of three kinds. By way of womb and destination, it is of four kinds, and of five kinds.

The sixfold base, by its being the meeting-place for what has come into existence, is of one kind. By way of being derived from the elements, or being sensitivity, or being consciousness, and the like, it is of two kinds. By way of having an accessible, an inaccessible, or a common object, it is of three kinds. By way of being included in womb and destination, it is of four kinds, and of five kinds. By this same method, the being-of-one-kind-and-so-forth of contact and the rest, too, should be understood. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of being-one-kind-and-so-forth should also be understood.

"And by the determination of the factors": sorrow and the rest are mentioned here for the purpose of showing that the wheel of becoming has no break in its continuity. For these arise in a fool who is struck by aging-and-death — as it is said: "bhikkhus, when touched by a painful bodily feeling, the uninstructed worldling sorrows, is wearied, laments, beats his breast and wails, and falls into bewilderment." And for as long as these continue to occur, ignorance continues too; and so, once again, the wheel of becoming remains simply the unbroken connection "dependent on ignorance are formations." Therefore it should be understood that, having reduced these to a single grouping together with aging-and-death alone, there are exactly twelve factors of dependent origination. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of the determination of the factors should also be understood.

This, then, so far, is the summary discussion.

Now, this is the detailed method. "Ignorance," in the suttanta method, is unknowing with respect to four points — suffering and the rest; in the Abhidhamma method, it is unknowing with respect to eight points, together with the past and the rest. For it is said: "and what, herein, is ignorance? Unknowing regarding suffering … unknowing regarding the way leading to the cessation of suffering; unknowing regarding the past; regarding the future; regarding the past and future together; and unknowing regarding specific conditionality and dependently arisen states." Herein, although ignorance can arise, by way of taking an object, with respect to every point other than the two supramundane truths as well, it is nevertheless meant here only in the sense of concealment. For, once arisen, it stands concealing the truth of suffering, and does not allow its true, specific characteristic to be penetrated; likewise it stands concealing the origin, the cessation, the path; the five aggregates of the past, called "the past"; the five aggregates of the future, called "the future"; both of these together, called "the past and future"; and specific conditionality itself together with dependently arisen states, called "states that are specifically conditioned and dependently arisen." It does not allow the true, specific characteristic — "this is ignorance, these are the formations" — to be penetrated here. Therefore it is said: "unknowing regarding suffering … unknowing regarding states that are specifically conditioned and dependently arisen."

"Formations": the three — meritorious and the rest — and the three — bodily formations and the rest — thus six were stated briefly above; in detail, herein, the meritorious formation consists of the eight sense-sphere wholesome volitions occurring by way of giving, virtue, and the like, together with the five form-sphere wholesome volitions occurring by way of development — thirteen volitions in all. The demeritorious formation is the twelve unwholesome volitions occurring by way of killing living beings and the like. The imperturbable formation is the four formless-sphere wholesome volitions occurring by way of development alone. Thus all three formations together amount to twenty-nine volitions.

Among the other three formations: bodily volition is the "bodily formation"; verbal volition is the "verbal formation"; mental volition is the "mental formation." This triad is stated for the purpose of showing the occurrence of the meritorious formation and the rest by way of their door, at the moment of accumulating kamma. For the eight sense-sphere wholesome volitions and the twelve unwholesome volitions, occurring through the bodily door, having given rise to bodily intimation — these twenty volitions together are called the "bodily formation." Those very same volitions, occurring through the verbal door, having given rise to verbal intimation, are called the "verbal formation." Herein, the volition of direct knowledge is not included, since it does not, afterward, serve as a condition for consciousness. And just as with the volition of direct knowledge, so too with the volition of restlessness — therefore it, too, should be excluded from being a condition for consciousness, though all of these are, indeed, conditioned by ignorance. But all twenty-nine volitions whatsoever that arise in the mind-door, without giving rise to either kind of intimation, are the "mental formation." Thus this second triad simply falls within the former triad; and so, in meaning, ignorance's state of being a condition should be understood only by way of the meritorious formation and the rest.

Here it might be asked: how, then, is this to be known — that "these formations are conditioned by ignorance"? By their being present when ignorance is present, and absent when it is absent. For one in whom the unknowing called ignorance, with respect to suffering and the rest, is not abandoned — such a one, through unknowing regarding suffering and, first of all, regarding the past and the rest, grasps the suffering of the round as pleasure, and undertakes, on account of that very misperception, all three kinds of formations. Through unknowing regarding the origin, not seeing that the formations which equip craving are themselves the cause of suffering, he undertakes them, thinking them the cause of happiness. And through unknowing regarding cessation and the path, having become one who perceives some particular destination as the cessation of suffering even though it is not the cessation of suffering at all, and one who perceives sacrifices, austerities, and the like as the path to cessation even though they are not the path to cessation at all, and longing for the cessation of suffering, he undertakes all three kinds of formations by way of such things as sacrifices and austerities.

Moreover, because of this unabandoned ignorance regarding the four truths, not knowing, in particular, as suffering that very suffering — the so-called "fruit of merit," strewn with the many drawbacks of birth, aging, sickness, death, and the rest — he undertakes, for the sake of attaining it, the meritorious formation, divided into bodily, verbal, and mental formations, just like one who, longing for a celestial nymph, leaps to his death, longing for a fall into a divine realm. And even one who does not see, at the end of that fruit of merit accounted as pleasure, the suffering inherent in its very changeability — productive of great anguish — and its lack of true satisfaction, still undertakes, on account of that very craving, that same kind of meritorious formation — just like a moth flying into the flame of a lamp, or one greedy for a drop of honey licking the honey-smeared edge of a knife-blade. And one who does not see the drawback in such things as the pursuit of sensual pleasures, together with their results, undertakes, through the perception of pleasure and through being overpowered by the defilements, the demeritorious formation as well, operating through all three doors — just like a fool playing in filth, or one wishing to die by eating poison. And one who does not understand the suffering inherent in the very changeability of the formations, even within the results of the formless attainments, undertakes, through the distortion of perceiving them as permanent and the like, the imperturbable formation — just like one lost in direction, walking a road that leads straight to a city of demons.

Thus, since the existence of the formations depends precisely on the presence of ignorance, and not on its absence, this should be understood: "these formations are conditioned by ignorance." And this, too, was said: "not knowing, bhikkhus, this person, gone into ignorance, produces even a meritorious formation, produces even a demeritorious formation, produces even an imperturbable formation. But when, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu's ignorance has been abandoned and true knowledge has arisen, then, through the fading away of ignorance and the arising of true knowledge, he no longer produces even a meritorious formation."

Here it might be said: "granted, then, that this ignorance is a condition for the formations" — but this should also be asked: a condition for which formations, and how? Here is the answer. For the Blessed One declared twenty-four conditions: "the root condition, the object condition, the predominance condition, the contiguity condition, the immediate contiguity condition, the conascence condition, the mutuality condition, the dependence condition, the decisive support condition, the prenascence condition, the postnascence condition, the repetition condition, the kamma condition, the result condition, the nutriment condition, the faculty condition, the jhāna condition, the path condition, the association condition, the dissociation condition, the presence condition, the absence condition, the disappearance condition, and the non-disappearance condition."

Herein, "that which is both a root and a condition" is the "root condition" — meaning, a condition by being a root, a condition by way of the state of being a root. The same method applies to the object condition and the rest.

Herein, "root" is a term used for three distinct things: a component of speech, a cause, and a root. For in worldly usage, in such phrases as "a reason for the assertion," a component of an argument is called "hetu." But in the Teaching, in such passages as "those things that spring from a cause," it means a cause generally. In such passages as "the three wholesome roots, the three unwholesome roots," a root is called "hetu" — and that root is what is intended here. As for "condition," this is its literal sense: that from which, having depended on it, a result comes — that is a condition. It means: the result occurs without having disregarded it. For whatever state, without disregarding some other state, persists or arises, that other state is said to be its condition. By characteristic, however, a condition has the characteristic of being a help. For whatever state is a help to another state's persisting or arising, that is called its condition. "Condition," "root," "cause," "source," "origin," "production," and the like are one in meaning, though different in wording. Thus, in the sense of being a root, it is "hetu"; in the sense of being a help, it is "paccaya." In brief: a state that is a help by way of being a root is the "root condition."

It is the opinion of the teachers that this root is what accomplishes the very state of being wholesome and so forth for wholesome and other states, just as rice-seeds and the like accomplish the ripening of rice-plants, and just as the color and the rest of a gem accomplish its own distinctive quality. But if this were so, root-condition-hood would not hold for the matter produced by that same consciousness — for the root does not accomplish the wholesome or other state of that derived matter, yet it is not the case that it is not its condition either. For it is said: "roots are a condition, by way of the root condition, for states associated with the root and for the matter produced by them." And, again, the indeterminate nature of rootless states of consciousness is established without reference to this root; and even for states of consciousness that do have roots, their wholesome or other state is bound up with wise attention and the like, not bound up with the associated root. And if the wholesome or other state of associated roots existed simply by their own inherent nature, then non-greed, when bound up with the associated roots, would have to be either wholesome or indeterminate absolutely — yet since it is found to be both, the wholesome or other quality must be sought in the roots in just the same way as in the associated states.

But if the root's being a "root" is taken, not in the sense of accomplishing the wholesome or other state, but in the sense of accomplishing a well-established condition, nothing is contradicted. For states that have obtained the root condition are firm and well established, like trees whose roots have grown deep; states without a root are not well established, like the moss on a sesame seed or the like. Thus it should be understood: a state that is a help, in the sense of being a root, by way of accomplishing a well-established condition — that is the "root condition."

Beyond that, a state that is a help by way of being an object is the "object condition." Though it begins by being illustrated as "the visible-form base is a condition for the eye-consciousness element," it is finally summed up as "whatever states of consciousness and mental factors arise having taken any given state as their object — that given state is, for those states of consciousness and mental factors, a condition by way of the object condition" — such that there is no state whatsoever that is excluded. For just as a weak man can only rise and stand by leaning on a stick or a rope, so too states of consciousness and mental factors arise and persist only by taking hold of an object such as a visible form. Therefore, it should be understood that all states whatsoever that serve as an object for consciousness and mental factors are the "object condition."

A state that is a help by way of being the chief is the "predominance condition"; it is of two kinds, by way of conascence and by way of being an object. Herein, from such statements as "zeal-as-predominant is a condition, by way of the predominance condition, for the states associated with zeal and for the matter produced by them," the four states called zeal, energy, mind, and investigation should be understood as the predominance condition — but not all at once. For when consciousness occurs having made zeal its task, having made zeal its chief, then zeal alone is the predominant one, not the others. The same method applies to the rest.

But that state which, being given weight, causes formless states to occur — that is their object-predominant condition. Hence it is said: "whatever state, having been given weight, gives rise to whatever states of consciousness and mental factors — that state is, for those states of consciousness and mental factors, a condition by way of the predominance condition."

A state that is a help by way of contiguity is the "contiguity condition." A state that is a help by way of immediate contiguity is the "immediate contiguity condition." These two conditions are elaborated upon at great length elsewhere; but this, herein, is the essence: that fixed order of consciousness whereby, for instance, the mind-element follows immediately upon eye-consciousness, and the mind-consciousness-element follows immediately upon the mind-element — since this order is accomplished only by force of each preceding state of consciousness, and never otherwise — therefore a state capable of giving rise to a suitable state of consciousness immediately following it is the "contiguity condition." Hence it is said: "the contiguity condition is this: the eye-consciousness element and its associated states are, for the mind-element and its associated states, a condition by way of the contiguity condition," and so on. Whatever is a contiguity condition is precisely an immediate contiguity condition as well; the difference here is one of wording only, as with "accumulation" and "continuity," or as with such technical pairs as "designation" and "expression." In meaning, however, there is no difference.

As for the opinion of certain teachers that "it is the contiguity condition by way of contiguity in meaning, and the immediate contiguity condition by way of contiguity in time" — this is contradicted by such passages as: "for one emerging from cessation, wholesome consciousness of the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is, for the attainment of fruition, a condition by way of the immediate contiguity condition." And what they say there — "the capacity of these states to give rise to a subsequent state is not lost; rather, by the power of development, states are simply prevented from arising immediately" — this very statement establishes precisely the absence of contiguity in time. For we, too, say just this: that, by the power of development, there is no contiguity in time in that case. And since there is no contiguity in time, the state of being an immediate contiguity condition would then not hold — for their own position is that it is by contiguity in time that these states become an immediate contiguity condition. Therefore, without clinging to that view, the distinction here should be accepted as one of wording only, not of meaning. How so? "Contiguous" means: there is no interval between these states. "Immediately contiguous" means: thoroughly contiguous, on account of there being no intervening configuration that could separate them.

A state that, in the very act of arising, is a help by way of arising together with another — that is the "conascence condition," like a lamp for light. It is of six kinds, by way of the formless aggregates and so forth. As it is said: "the four formless aggregates are, for one another, a condition by way of the conascence condition. The four great elements are, for one another; at the moment of descent into the womb, name-and-form are, for one another; states of consciousness and mental factors are, for the matter produced by consciousness; the great elements are, for derived matter; material states are, for formless states, on some occasions a condition by way of the conascence condition, and on some occasions not." This last is said with reference to the heart-basis alone.

A state that is a help to another by way of mutually giving rise to and supporting one another is the "mutuality condition," like three sticks propping one another up. It is of three kinds, by way of the formless aggregates and so forth. As it is said: "the four formless aggregates are, for one another, a condition by way of the mutuality condition. The four great elements are, for one another; at the moment of descent, name-and-form are, for one another, a condition by way of the mutuality condition."

A state that is a help by way of being a foundation and by way of being a support is the "dependence condition," like the earth and a canvas for a tree and a painting. It should be understood in just the way already stated for the conascence condition: "the four formless aggregates are, for one another, a condition by way of the dependence condition." There is, however, a sixth portion here, distinguished thus: "the eye-base is, for the eye-consciousness element and its associated states, a condition by way of the dependence condition; likewise the ear … the nose … the tongue … the body-base, for the body-consciousness element and its associated states. That matter depending on which the mind-element and the mind-consciousness element occur — that matter is, for the mind-element and the mind-consciousness element and their associated states, a condition by way of the dependence condition."

As for "decisive support condition," this, first, is its literal meaning: because of occurring in dependence on it, the result is depended upon by its own effect, not rejected — this is "dependence." And just as "intense distress" intensified becomes "great distress," so too "dependence" intensified becomes "decisive dependence," a term for a powerful cause. Therefore, a state that is a help by way of being a powerful cause should be understood as the "decisive support condition."

It is of three kinds: decisive support by way of object, decisive support by way of contiguity, and decisive support by way of the natural. Herein, decisive support by way of object is first distinguished, in the manner of such passages as "having given a gift, having undertaken the precepts, having performed the observance-day duties, one reviews that, giving it weight; one reviews, giving weight, good deeds done in the past; having emerged from jhāna, one reviews the jhāna, giving it weight; trainees review the change-of-lineage consciousness, giving it weight; they review purification, giving it weight; trainees, having emerged from the path, review the path, giving it weight" — without, at this point, being distinguished from the object-predominance condition. Herein, whatever object, being given weight, gives rise to states of consciousness and mental factors, that object invariably becomes, among those objects, a powerful object. Thus the distinction between these two should be understood as follows: in the mere sense of being worthy of being given weight, it is the object-predominance condition; in the sense of being a powerful cause, it is decisive support by way of object.

Decisive support by way of contiguity, too, is distinguished, in the manner of such passages as "each preceding wholesome aggregate is, for each succeeding wholesome aggregate, a condition by way of the decisive support condition," without, at this point, being distinguished from the contiguity condition. Even so, it should be understood: contiguity-hood consists in the capacity to give rise to a suitable state of consciousness immediately following one's own occurrence, while decisive-support-by-contiguity-hood consists in the power exercised by a preceding state of consciousness in giving rise to a succeeding one. For just as, in the case of the root condition and the rest, a state of consciousness can arise even without some particular state, there is no such thing, in the case of a contiguous state of consciousness, as a state of consciousness arising without it. Therefore it is a powerful condition. Thus it should be understood: by way of giving rise to a suitable state of consciousness immediately following one's own occurrence, it is the contiguity condition; by way of being a powerful cause, it is decisive support by way of contiguity.

But decisive support by way of the natural: a "natural" state is one either accomplished in one's own mental continuity — such as faith, virtue, and the like — or resorted to, such as climate, food, and the like. Or, alternatively: decisive support that is simply by natural inclination itself is decisive support by way of the natural — meaning, not mixed together with decisive support by way of object or contiguity. Its manifold distinction should be understood in the manner of such passages as: "in dependence on faith, one gives a gift, undertakes the precepts, performs the observance-day duties, gives rise to jhāna, gives rise to insight, gives rise to the path, gives rise to direct knowledge, gives rise to an attainment. In dependence on virtue, learning, generosity, wisdom, one gives a gift … gives rise to an attainment. Faith, virtue, learning, generosity, and wisdom are, for faith, virtue, learning, generosity, and wisdom, a condition by way of the decisive support condition." Thus these states — faith and the rest — being both natural and, in the sense of being a powerful cause, a decisive support, constitute "decisive support by way of the natural."

A state that, having already arisen and being present beforehand, is a help — that is the "prenascence condition." It is of eleven kinds, by way of the physical basis and object in the five sense-doors, and by way of the heart-basis. As it is said: "the eye-base is, for the eye-consciousness element and its associated states, a condition by way of the prenascence condition. Likewise the ear-base … the nose-, tongue-, body-base; visible form, sound, odor, taste, and the tangible base are, for the body-consciousness element and its associated states, a condition by way of the prenascence condition. Visible form … the tangible base is, for the mind-element. That matter depending on which the mind-element and the mind-consciousness element occur — that matter is, for the mind-element and its associated states, a condition by way of the prenascence condition. For the mind-consciousness element and its associated states, on some occasions it is a condition by way of the prenascence condition, and on some occasions it is not."

A formless state that is a help, by way of supporting material states that arose before it, is the "postnascence condition," like the longing for food felt by a vulture's fledglings toward their own already-formed bodies. Hence it is said: "states of consciousness and mental factors that arise afterward are, for this body that arose before them, a condition by way of the postnascence condition."

A state that is a help, by way of repeated practice, toward the proficiency and strength of the states immediately following it — that is the "repetition condition," like each preceding round of application in memorizing texts and the like. It is of three kinds, by way of wholesome, unwholesome, and functional impulsion. As it is said: "each preceding wholesome state is, for each succeeding wholesome state, a condition by way of the repetition condition. Each preceding unwholesome state … each preceding functional-indeterminate state is, for each succeeding functional-indeterminate state, a condition by way of the repetition condition."

A state that is a help by way of the activity called the exertion of mind — that is the "kamma condition." It is of two kinds: by way of wholesome and unwholesome volition operating at a different time from its result, and by way of any and all volition operating conascently with its result. As it is said: "wholesome and unwholesome kamma is, for the resultant aggregates and for matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the kamma condition. Volition is, for its associated states and for the matter produced by that same volition, a condition by way of the kamma condition."

A resultant state that, being itself effortless and quiescent, is a help toward the effortless, quiescent occurrence of another state — that is the "result condition." In the course of occurrence, it is a condition for the matter it produces; at rebirth-linking, for the matter produced by that same kamma; and, in every case, for its associated states. As it is said: "one resultant-indeterminate aggregate is, for the other three aggregates and for the matter produced by that consciousness, a condition by way of the result condition … at the moment of rebirth-linking, one resultant-indeterminate aggregate is, for the other three aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma; three aggregates are, for one aggregate; two aggregates are, for the other two aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the result condition. The aggregates are, for the physical basis, a condition by way of the result condition."

The four kinds of nutriment, which are a help in the sense of sustaining material and formless states, are the "nutriment condition." As it is said: "edible food is, for this body, a condition by way of the nutriment condition. The formless kinds of nutriment are, for their associated states and for the matter produced by them, a condition by way of the nutriment condition." In the Chapter of Questions, it is also said: "at the moment of rebirth-linking, the resultant-indeterminate kinds of nutriment are, for their associated aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the nutriment condition."

The twenty faculties, excepting the femininity and masculinity faculties, which are a help in the sense of exercising dominance — these are the "faculty condition." Herein, the eye-faculty and the rest are conditions only for formless states; the remaining faculties are conditions for both material and formless states. As it is said: "the eye-faculty is, for the eye-consciousness element … the ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-faculty is, for the body-consciousness element and its associated states, a condition by way of the faculty condition. The material life-faculty is, for the matter produced by kamma, a condition by way of the faculty condition. The formless faculties are, for their associated states and for the matter produced by them, a condition by way of the faculty condition." In the Chapter of Questions, it is also said: "at the moment of rebirth-linking, the resultant-indeterminate faculties are, for their associated aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the faculty condition."

The seven jhāna-factors, of every ethical kind, which are a help in the sense of close contemplation, excepting the pair of pleasant and painful bodily feeling in the two sets of fivefold sense-consciousness — these are the "jhāna condition." As it is said: "the jhāna-factors are, for their associated states and for the matter produced by them, a condition by way of the jhāna condition." In the Chapter of Questions, it is also said: "at the moment of rebirth-linking, the resultant-indeterminate jhāna-factors are, for their associated aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the jhāna condition."

The twelve path-factors, of every ethical kind, which are a help in the sense of leading out from this or that state — these are the "path condition." As it is said: "the path-factors are, for their associated states and for the matter produced by them, a condition by way of the path condition." In the Chapter of Questions, it is also said: "at the moment of rebirth-linking, the resultant-indeterminate path-factors are, for their associated aggregates and for the matter produced by that kamma, a condition by way of the path condition." It should be understood, however, that neither of these two conditions — the jhāna condition and the path condition — is found in the rootless states of consciousness belonging to the two sets of fivefold sense-consciousness.

Formless states that are a help by way of association — that is, by having one physical basis, one object, one arising, and one ceasing in common — are the "association condition." As it is said: "the four formless aggregates are, for one another, a condition by way of the association condition."

Material states, which are a help to formless states by not having such things as one physical basis in common — and formless states likewise, to material states — are the "dissociation condition." It is of three kinds, by way of conascence, postnascence, and prenascence. For it is said: "conascent wholesome aggregates are, for the matter produced by that consciousness, a condition by way of the dissociation condition. Postnascent wholesome aggregates are, for this prenascent body, a condition by way of the dissociation condition." The prenascent dissociation condition, however, should be understood only by way of the eye-faculty and the other physical bases. As it is said: "the prenascent eye-base is, for eye-consciousness … the body-base is, for body-consciousness, a condition by way of the dissociation condition."

A state that, by the characteristic of being present, is a help to a state of that same kind by supporting it — that is the "presence condition." Its summary heading is set out in seven ways: by way of the formless aggregates, the great elements, name-and-form, consciousness and mental factors, the great elements and derived matter, the sense bases, and the physical basis. As it is said: "the four formless aggregates are, for one another, a condition by way of the presence condition; the four great elements are, for one another; at the moment of descent, name-and-form are, for one another. States of consciousness and mental factors are, for the matter produced by that consciousness. The great elements are, for derived matter. The eye-base is, for the eye-consciousness element … and its associated states, a condition by way of the presence condition."

Formless states that have just ceased, immediately upon their own occurrence, which are a help by giving occasion for the occurrence of formless states now arising immediately after them — these are the "absence condition." As it is said: "states of consciousness and mental factors that have ceased immediately are, for the present states of consciousness and mental factors, a condition by way of the absence condition."

Those very same states, by way of being a help through their having disappeared, are the "disappearance condition." As it is said: "states of consciousness and mental factors that have disappeared immediately are, for the present states of consciousness and mental factors, a condition by way of the disappearance condition."

And the very states that constitute the presence condition, by way of being a help through their not having disappeared, should be understood as the "non-disappearance condition." This pair, however, is stated by way of the exuberance of the teaching, or for the sake of those to be guided who need to be taught in just that way — just as the rootless pair is stated even after the root-dissociated pair has already been stated.

Thus, among these twenty-four conditions, this ignorance — "is a condition for meritorious formations in two ways, but for the others in many ways; for the last, it is held to be a condition in one way only."

Herein, "for meritorious formations, in two ways": it is a condition in two ways, by way of the object condition and by way of the decisive support condition. For it is a condition, by way of the object condition, for sense-sphere meritorious formations at the time when ignorance itself is being comprehended by way of its destruction and its fall; and for form-sphere meritorious formations at the time when a deluded state of mind is known by direct-knowledge consciousness. But for one who, for the purpose of transcending ignorance, fulfills such sense-sphere meritorious bases of action as giving, and gives rise to form-sphere jhānas, it is a condition, by way of the decisive support condition, for both of these — likewise for one who, being confounded by ignorance, aspires after the attainments of sense-sphere and form-sphere being, and performs precisely those same meritorious deeds for that confounded reason.

"But for the others, in many ways": it is a condition for demeritorious formations in many ways. How so? For it is a condition, by way of the object condition, at the time when lust and the rest arise taking ignorance itself as their object; by way of the object-predominance condition and decisive-support-by-object, at the time of relishing it, having given it weight; by way of the decisive support condition, for one confounded by ignorance and blind to its drawbacks who commits the killing of living beings and the like; by way of the contiguity, immediate contiguity, decisive-support-by-contiguity, repetition, absence, and disappearance conditions, for the second and subsequent moments of impulsion; and by way of the root, conascence, mutuality, dependence, association, presence, and non-disappearance conditions, for one performing any unwholesome deed whatsoever — thus it is a condition in many ways.

"For the last, it is held to be a condition in one way only": for the imperturbable formations, it is held to be a condition in one way only, by way of the decisive support condition alone. Its state of being a decisive support here should be understood in just the way already stated for the meritorious formations.

Here it might be asked: is this ignorance, then, all by itself, a condition for the formations — or are there other conditions as well? What of it, one might say: if it is only this one alone, the doctrine of a single cause would follow; but if there are others as well, then the statement of a single cause, "dependent on ignorance are formations," would not hold. Does it not hold? It does hold. Why? Because — "here it is not one from one, nor many from many, nor one from many; but there is an effect from many causes — yet there is also a point to showing a single cause and a single effect."

For here, no single effect comes from a single cause, nor does a manifold effect. Nor does a single effect come from manifold causes. But a manifold effect does indeed come from manifold causes. Thus, for instance, a manifold effect — the sprout, together with its color, its scent, and its taste — is seen to arise from the manifold causes called season, earth, seed, and moisture. As for this statement, "dependent on ignorance are formations; dependent on formations, consciousness," which shows a single cause and a single effect — there is a point to it; a purpose is served.

For the Blessed One shows a single cause or a single effect in some places because it is the principal one, in some places because it is the evident one, and in some places because it is the exclusive one, in accordance with the exuberance of his teaching and with what suits those to be guided. "Dependent on contact is feeling" states a single cause and a single effect because each is the principal one for the other: contact is the principal cause of feeling, since feeling is determined precisely according to the kind of contact; and feeling is the principal effect of contact, since contact is determined precisely according to the kind of feeling. "Ailments arise from phlegm" states a single cause because it is the evident one: here it is phlegm, not kamma and the rest, that is evident. "Whatever unwholesome states there are, bhikkhus, all of them are rooted in unwise attention" states a single cause because it is the exclusive one: for unwise attention is exclusive to unwholesome states, whereas such things as the physical basis and the object are common to wholesome and unwholesome states alike. Therefore, here, even though other causes of the formations do exist — the physical basis, the object, conascent states, and the rest — this ignorance is shown as the cause of the formations because it is the principal one among the other causes of the formations, such as craving, as stated in "for one who dwells contemplating gratification, craving increases" and "from the arising of the taints comes the arising of ignorance"; because it is the evident one, as in "bhikkhus, this person, gone into ignorance, produces even a meritorious formation"; and because it is the exclusive one. And by this same explanation, given as a way of resolving the apparent difficulty in showing a single cause and a single effect, the purpose of showing a single cause and a single effect should be understood everywhere else in the formula as well.

Here it might be asked: even so, how can ignorance — whose result is unfailingly undesirable, and which is itself blameworthy — be a condition for meritorious and imperturbable formations? For sugarcane does not grow from a neem seed. How can it not be so? For, in the world — "a condition for states is established as being both opposed and unopposed, and likewise both similar and dissimilar; but those states are not, on that account, the result of that condition."

For, in the world, a condition that is opposed to states, in respect of place, intrinsic nature, function, and the like, and one that is unopposed to them, are both established. A preceding state of consciousness is a condition, opposed in place, for a later state of consciousness; and so too is prior training in some craft or skill, for the craft-related activities carried out afterward. Kamma is a condition, opposed in intrinsic nature, for matter; and so are milk and the like, for curds and the like. Light is a condition, opposed in function, for eye-consciousness; and so are jaggery and the like, for the fermenting agents that turn them into liquor. But visible form and the eye and the rest are conditions unopposed in place for eye-consciousness and the rest; and preceding moments of impulsion and the rest are conditions unopposed in intrinsic nature and in function for succeeding moments of impulsion and the rest.

And just as opposed and unopposed conditions are established, so too are similar and dissimilar ones. For matter classed as season and nutriment is a similar condition for further matter, as are rice seeds and the like for rice grains and the like. Dissimilar matter, too, is a condition for the formless, and the formless for matter — as are cattle hair, sheep's wool, horn, curds, and sesame flour, for various kinds of grass such as dūrvā-grass and reed grass. And states for which these are conditions — opposed, unopposed, similar, and dissimilar — are not, on that account, simply the results of those states.

Thus this ignorance, though its result is unfailingly undesirable, and though it is itself blameworthy by its intrinsic nature, is nonetheless a condition — suitably, by way of conditions opposed and unopposed in place, function, and intrinsic nature, and by way of similar and dissimilar conditions — for all of these, the meritorious formations and the rest, as should be understood.

There is, moreover, this further approach — "whoever is confounded regarding passing away and rebirth, regarding the round, regarding the characteristic of formations, and regarding dependently arisen states, fashions, precisely on that account, these three kinds of formations; ignorance is their condition — and so it is a condition for these three kinds as well."

But how does one who is confounded regarding these things thereby produce these three kinds of formations? First, one confounded regarding passing away, not grasping passing away as it truly is — "in every case, the breaking up of the aggregates is death" — imagines instead: "a being dies," "a being's crossing over into another body," and the like.

One confounded regarding rebirth, not grasping rebirth as it truly is — "in every case, the appearance of the aggregates is birth" — imagines instead: "a being is reborn," "a being's appearance in a new body," and the like.

One confounded regarding the round — which is thus described: "the unbroken sequential occurrence of the aggregates, elements, and sense bases is called the round" — not grasping the round as so described, imagines instead: "this being goes from this world to another world, and comes from another world to this world," and the like.

One confounded regarding the characteristic of formations, not grasping the intrinsic characteristic and the general characteristic of formations, imagines the formations as self, as belonging to a self, as permanent, as pleasurable, as beautiful.

One confounded regarding dependently arisen states, not grasping the occurrence of the formations and the rest through ignorance and the other conditions, imagines instead: either that "a self knows or does not know; that very self acts and causes to act; it is reborn at rebirth-linking; for it, subtle sovereign forces and the like establish the body in the form of the embryonic clot and the rest, and bring the faculties to completion; endowed with faculties, it touches, feels, thirsts, clings, and strives; it comes to be again in another state of being" — or that "all beings are wholly determined by fate and circumstance."

Blinded by ignorance, imagining in this way, he fashions merit, demerit, or the imperturbable formation, just as a blind man, wandering over the earth, sometimes takes the right path and sometimes the wrong one, sometimes level ground and sometimes rough, sometimes even ground and sometimes uneven.

Hence it is said — "just as a man, blind from birth, without a guide, at one time walks by the right path, and at another by the wrong one — so too the fool, wandering through the round of existence, without a guide, at one time performs merit, and at another, demerit as well. But when he has known the Dhamma and awakened to the truths, then, with the calming of ignorance, he will fare having become calmed."

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on ignorance are formations."

In the section "dependent on formations, consciousness": "consciousness" is sixfold — eye-consciousness and the rest. Herein, eye-consciousness is of two kinds, wholesome-resultant and unwholesome-resultant; likewise ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness. Mind-consciousness is of twenty-two kinds: the two mind-elements that are wholesome- and unwholesome-resultant, the three rootless mind-consciousness-elements, the eight sense-sphere resultant states of consciousness with roots, the five form-sphere, and the four formless-sphere. Thus, by these six kinds of consciousness, all thirty-two mundane resultant states of consciousness are included. The supramundane ones, however, are not taken, since they do not fit within the discourse on the round.

Here it might be asked: how, then, is this to be known — that consciousness of the kind just described is conditioned by formations? By the absence of the result when accumulated kamma is absent. For this is a result, and a result does not arise when accumulated kamma is absent; if it could arise without it, then every result would arise for everyone — yet they do not so arise. Thus it should be known that this consciousness is conditioned by formations.

If it is asked which formation conditions which consciousness: conditioned by the sense-sphere meritorious formation, first, are the five wholesome-resultant states — eye-consciousness and the rest — together with, in the mind-consciousness category, one mind-element, two mind-consciousness-elements, and the eight sense-sphere great resultant states — sixteen in all. As it is said: "through the having-been-done and having-been-accumulated of sense-sphere wholesome kamma, resultant eye-consciousness arises … ear- … nose- … tongue- … body-consciousness … resultant mind-element arises. Mind-consciousness-element accompanied by joy arises. Mind-consciousness-element accompanied by equanimity arises. Accompanied by joy, associated with knowledge; accompanied by joy, associated with knowledge, with prompting; accompanied by joy, dissociated from knowledge; accompanied by joy, dissociated from knowledge, with prompting; accompanied by equanimity, associated with knowledge; accompanied by equanimity, associated with knowledge, with prompting; accompanied by equanimity, dissociated from knowledge; accompanied by equanimity, dissociated from knowledge, with prompting."

But conditioned by the form-sphere meritorious formation are the five form-sphere resultant states. As it is said: "through the having-been-done and having-been-accumulated of that same form-sphere wholesome kamma, one enters and dwells in the resultant first jhāna, quite secluded from sense pleasures … up to the fifth jhāna." Thus, conditioned by the meritorious formation, consciousness is of twenty-one kinds.

But conditioned by the demeritorious formation are the five unwholesome-resultant states — eye-consciousness and the rest — together with one mind-element and one mind-consciousness-element: consciousness of seven kinds in all. As it is said: "through the having-been-done and having-been-accumulated of unwholesome kamma, resultant eye-consciousness arises … ear- … nose- … tongue- … body-consciousness … resultant mind-element arises, resultant mind-consciousness-element arises."

But conditioned by the imperturbable formation are the four formless-resultant states: consciousness of four kinds. As it is said: "through the having-been-done and having-been-accumulated of that same formless-sphere wholesome kamma, one enters and dwells in the resultant attainment accompanied by the perception of the base of infinite space, through the complete transcending of perceptions of form … the base of infinite consciousness … the base of nothingness … one enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna, accompanied by the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, through the abandoning of pleasure and pain."

Having thus known which consciousness is conditioned by which formation, its occurrence should now be understood as follows. All of this occurs in two ways: by way of the course of life, and by way of rebirth-linking. Herein, the two sets of fivefold consciousness, the two mind-elements, and the rootless mind-consciousness-element accompanied by joy — these thirteen occur only in the course of life, within the five-constituent mode of being. The remaining nineteen occur, as suits each case, both in the course of life and at rebirth-linking, within the three kinds of being.

How so? First, the five wholesome-resultant states — eye-consciousness and the rest — occur, taking as their object a desirable or a neutral-desirable visible form or other object that has come into range of the eye and the other faculties of one born through a wholesome or unwholesome result, whose faculties have reached maturity in due course, accomplishing, in dependence on the sensitivity of the eye and the rest, the function of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching. Likewise the five unwholesome-resultant states — except that their object is, without exception, an undesirable or a neutral-undesirable one; this is the only difference. And these ten, too, have a fixed door, object, physical basis, and place, and a fixed function as well.

After that, immediately following the wholesome-resultant eye-consciousness and the rest, the wholesome-resultant mind-element occurs, taking that same object, accomplishing, in dependence on the heart-basis, the function of receiving. Likewise, immediately following the unwholesome-resultant sense-consciousnesses, the unwholesome-resultant mind-element occurs. This pair has a variable door and object, but a fixed physical basis, place, and function.

But the rootless mind-consciousness-element accompanied by joy, occurring immediately after the wholesome-resultant mind-element, taking that same object, accomplishing, in dependence on the heart-basis, the function of investigating — it is stated in the Majjhima commentary that, with respect to a powerful object in any of the six doors, for sense-sphere beings, it occurs once or twice, by way of registration, upon an object taken by the impulsion at the end of a run of impulsions mostly associated with greed, having cut off the course of the life-continuum. In the Abhidhamma commentary, however, two rounds of consciousness are given for registration. This consciousness, moreover, receives two names: "registration" and "the life-continuum behind the impulsions." It has a variable door and object, a fixed physical basis, and a variable place and function. Thus, so far, these thirteen should be understood to occur only in the course of life, within the five-constituent mode of being.

Among the remaining nineteen, there is none that does not occur, in due course, at its own suitable rebirth-linking. But in the course of life, first, the two wholesome- and unwholesome-resultant rootless mind-consciousness-elements, occurring immediately after the wholesome- and unwholesome-resultant mind-elements in the five sense-doors, accomplish the function of registering; in all six doors, in the manner already stated, the function of registration; and, after the rebirth-linking they themselves have given, in the absence of any arising of consciousness that would cut off the life-continuum, the function of the life-continuum; and, at the end, the function of decease — thus, accomplishing four functions, they occur with a fixed physical basis but a variable door, object, place, and function.

The eight sense-sphere states of consciousness with roots, in the manner already stated, accomplish, in the six doors, the function of registration; after the rebirth-linking they themselves have given, in the absence of any consciousness that would cut off the life-continuum, the function of the life-continuum; and, at the end, the function of decease — thus, accomplishing three functions, they occur with a fixed physical basis but a variable door, object, place, and function.

The five form-sphere and four formless attainments occur, after the rebirth-linking they themselves have given, accomplishing, in the absence of any consciousness that would cut off the life-continuum, the function of the life-continuum, and, at the end, the function of decease — two functions. Among these, the form-sphere states occur with a fixed physical basis and object but a variable place and function; the others occur with a fixed physical basis, a fixed object, but a variable place and function. Thus, so far, all thirty-two kinds of consciousness occur, in the course of life, conditioned by the formations. And here, the various formations are their conditions by way of both the kamma condition and the decisive support condition.

But the statement "among the remaining nineteen, there is none that does not occur, in due course, at its own suitable rebirth-linking" is difficult to understand, being stated so briefly. Therefore, in order to show it in detail, it is asked: how many rebirth-linkings are there, how many rebirth-linking states of consciousness, by what and where does rebirth-linking occur, and what is the object of rebirth-linking?

Together with rebirth-linking among the non-percipient beings, there are twenty rebirth-linkings. The rebirth-linking states of consciousness, of the kind already stated, are nineteen. Herein: rebirth-linking in the states of misery occurs by way of the unwholesome-resultant rootless mind-consciousness-element. Rebirth-linking as one born blind, deaf, mad, dumb, or a eunuch, and the like, in the human world, occurs by way of the wholesome-resultant rootless mind-consciousness-element. Rebirth-linking for the meritorious, among sense-sphere gods and among human beings, occurs by way of the eight sense-sphere resultant states with roots. Rebirth-linking in the form-sphere Brahmā world occurs by way of the five form-sphere resultant states. Rebirth-linking in the formless world occurs by way of the four formless-resultant states. And whichever rebirth-linking occurs by whichever consciousness and in whichever place — that alone is called the rebirth-linking suitable to that case. In brief, rebirth-linking has three kinds of object: past, present, and "not-so-classifiable." Non-percipient rebirth-linking has no object at all.

Herein, rebirth-linking into the base of infinite consciousness and into the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception has only a past object. That of the ten sense-sphere kinds has either a past or a present object. That of the rest has only a "not-so-classifiable" object. Now, since rebirth-linking, occurring with respect to these three kinds of object, occurs only immediately after a decease-consciousness whose object was either past or "not-so-classifiable" — for there is no such thing as a decease-consciousness with a present object — therefore the manner in which rebirth-linking, with one or another of three kinds of object, occurs immediately after decease, with one or another of two kinds of object, by way of a good or a bad destination, should be understood.

For example: for a person of evil kamma established in a good sense-sphere destination, lying on the deathbed — as in the passage beginning "those past deeds hang over him at that time" — his previously accumulated evil kamma, or a sign of that kamma, comes into range at the mind-door. Taking that as object, a cognitive process of impulsions ending in registration arises; immediately after it, taking the life-continuum's own object, a decease-consciousness arises. When that has ceased, a rebirth-linking consciousness, belonging to a bad destination, bent by the unabandoned power of the defilements, arises taking as its object that very same kamma or sign of kamma that had come into range. This is rebirth-linking with a past object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object.

For another, at the time of death, by force of kamma of the kind already described, a sign of a bad destination — such as the color of a blazing fire in the hells and the like — comes into range at the mind-door. For him, after the life-continuum has arisen twice and ceased, taking that object, one adverting consciousness arises; then, owing to the diminished momentum brought on by the nearness of death, five impulsions and two registrations — three kinds of cognitive-process consciousness arise in all. After that, taking the life-continuum's own object, one decease-consciousness arises. By this point, eleven mind-moments have elapsed. Then, with a lifespan of the remaining five mind-moments, a rebirth-linking consciousness arises taking that very same object. This is rebirth-linking with a present object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object.

For another, at the time of death, an inferior object, serving as the basis for lust and the rest, comes into range in one or another of the five sense-doors. For him, when that has arisen in due course, ending in determining, then, owing to the diminished momentum brought on by the nearness of death, five impulsions and two registrations arise. After that, taking the life-continuum's own object, one decease-consciousness arises. By this point, two life-continuum moments, adverting, seeing, receiving, investigating, determining, five impulsions, two registrations, and one decease-consciousness — fifteen mind-moments have elapsed. Then, with a lifespan of the remaining single mind-moment, a rebirth-linking consciousness arises taking that very same object. This, too, is rebirth-linking with a present object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object. This, then, is the manner in which rebirth-linking into a bad destination, with a past-or-present object, occurs immediately after decease from a good destination, with a past object.

But for one established in a bad destination who has accumulated blameless kamma, in just the way already stated, that blameless kamma, or a sign of that kamma, comes into range at the mind-door — everything should be understood in exactly the same way as before, substituting the bright side for the dark. This is the manner in which rebirth-linking into a good destination, with a past-or-present object, occurs immediately after decease from a bad destination, with a past object.

But for one established in a good destination who has accumulated blameless kamma, lying on the deathbed — as in the passage beginning "those past deeds hang over him at that time" — his previously accumulated blameless kamma, or a sign of that kamma, comes into range at the mind-door. And this is so only for accumulated sense-sphere blameless kamma; for accumulated exalted kamma, only a sign of that kamma comes into range. Taking that as object, a cognitive process of impulsions ending in registration — or a bare cognitive process of impulsions alone — arises; immediately after it, taking the life-continuum's own object, a decease-consciousness arises. When that has ceased, a rebirth-linking consciousness, belonging to a good destination, bent by the unabandoned power of the defilements, arises taking as its object that very same kamma or sign of kamma that had come into range. This is rebirth-linking with a past object, or with a "not-so-classifiable" object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object.

For another, at the time of death, by force of sense-sphere blameless kamma, a sign of a good destination comes into range at the mind-door — such as the color of a mother's womb, in the case of the human world, or the color of a park, a mansion, a wish-fulfilling tree, and the like, in the case of the deva world. For him, by the very same sequence already shown for the sign of a bad destination, a rebirth-linking consciousness arises immediately after the decease-consciousness. This is rebirth-linking with a present object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object.

For another, at the time of death, his relatives, saying, "dear one, this offering to the Buddha is being made for your sake — make your mind serene," present at the five sense-doors: a visible-form object, such as garlands of flowers and banners; or a sound object, such as the hearing of the Dhamma or musical offerings; or a smell object, such as incense and perfume; or, saying, "dear one, taste this — it is an offering to be given for your sake," a taste object, such as honey and molasses; or, saying, "dear one, touch this — it is an offering to be given for your sake," a tangible object, such as Chinese or Somāran cloth. For him, on that visible form or other object that has come into range, when the process has arisen in due course, ending in determining, then, owing to the diminished momentum brought on by the nearness of death, five impulsions and two registrations arise. After that, taking the life-continuum's own object, one decease-consciousness arises; at the end of that, a rebirth-linking consciousness arises taking that very same object, which has a duration of just that one mind-moment. This, too, is rebirth-linking with a present object, occurring immediately after decease with a past object.

But for another, one who has attained exalted consciousness by way of the earth-kasiṇa jhāna and the like, established in a good destination, at the time of death, one or another of the following comes into range at the mind-door: sense-sphere wholesome kamma, a sign of kamma, or a sign of destination; or a sign such as the earth-kasiṇa; or an exalted state of consciousness — or a refined object, serving as the basis for the arising of wholesomeness, comes into range in one or another of the eye or ear doors. For him, when this has arisen in due course, ending in determining, then, owing to the diminished momentum brought on by the nearness of death, five impulsions arise. But for those bound for an exalted destination, there is no registration; therefore, immediately after the impulsions, taking the life-continuum's own object, one decease-consciousness arises. At the end of that, a rebirth-linking consciousness arises, belonging to one or another of the sense-sphere or exalted good destinations, taking one or another of the objects as they have been presented. This is rebirth-linking with one or another of a past, present, or "not-so-classifiable" object, occurring immediately after decease from a good destination, with a "not-so-classifiable" object. By this same method, rebirth-linking immediately after decease from a formless state of being, too, should be understood.

But for one of evil kamma established in a bad destination, in the manner already stated, that kamma, a sign of kamma, or a sign of destination comes into range at the mind-door — or an object serving as the basis for the arising of unwholesomeness comes into range in one of the five sense-doors. Then, for him, in due course, at the end of the decease-consciousness, a rebirth-linking consciousness, belonging to a bad destination, arises, taking one or another of those objects. This is the manner in which rebirth-linking, with a past or present object, occurs immediately after decease from a bad destination, with a past object. By this point, the occurrence of all nineteen kinds of consciousness, by way of rebirth-linking, has been shown.

All of this, then, is as follows — "occurring at rebirth-linking, it operates in two ways by way of kamma; and, by such divisions as mixed and the rest, it admits a further division, twofold and more."

For this resultant consciousness, of nineteen kinds, occurring at rebirth-linking, operates in two ways by kamma. For its own generative kamma, operating at a different time, is a condition for each single one both by way of the kamma condition and by way of the decisive support condition. For it is said: "wholesome and unwholesome kamma is, for its result, a condition by way of the decisive support condition." And, occurring in this way, its further division — twofold and more — by such divisions as mixed with matter and the rest, should be understood.

For example: though it occurs, by way of rebirth-linking, as a single thing, it is of two kinds by the division of being mixed or unmixed with matter; of three kinds by the division of sense-sphere, form-sphere, and formless being; of four kinds by way of the wombs of the egg-born, the womb-born, the moisture-born, and the spontaneously-born; of five kinds by way of destination; of seven kinds by way of station of consciousness; and of eight kinds by way of abode of beings.

Herein — "the mixed kind is twofold by the division of sex-faculty; the 'with sex-faculty' kind, too, is twofold there; and, by way of the minimum, there are two or three decads, together with more."

"The mixed kind is twofold by the division of sex-faculty": this rebirth-linking consciousness, mixed with matter, arising anywhere other than in formless being, is of two kinds — "with sex-faculty" and "without sex-faculty" — since, in form-sphere being, it arises without the state called the femininity or masculinity faculty, whereas in sense-sphere being, other than in the rebirth-linking of one born a congenital eunuch, it arises together with that state.

"The 'with sex-faculty' kind, too, is twofold there": and, of that, whatever is "with sex-faculty" is itself twofold, since it arises together with one or the other of the feminine or masculine state.

"By way of the minimum, there are two or three decads, together with more": this rebirth-linking consciousness, mixed with matter — the first of the pair "mixed" and "unmixed" just mentioned — arises, at the minimum, together with two decads by way of the physical-basis decad and the body decad, or three decads by way of the physical-basis decad, the body decad, and the sex-faculty decad; there is no lesser measure of matter than this. And this, arising in this minimal measure, arises, in the two wombs called the egg-born and the womb-born, having acquired the designation "the embryonic clot" — of a size comparable to a drop of clarified butter drawn up on a single strand of newborn wool.

Herein, the distinction in how it comes to be should be understood by way of the destination proper to each womb. For, among these wombs — "in hell, among the gods excepting the earth-bound ones, the first three wombs do not occur; in the remaining three destinations, all four do."

Herein, by the word "and" in "among the gods," it should be understood that, just as in hell and among the gods excepting the earth-bound ones, so too among the scorched-by-craving petas, the first three wombs do not exist — for these beings are exclusively spontaneously-born. But in the remaining three destinations — the animal kingdom, the peta realm, and the human world — and among the earth-bound gods excepted above, all four wombs do occur.

Herein — "thirty-nine kinds of matter among the form-sphere beings; seventy at the maximum; but thirty at the minimum, in the moisture-born and spontaneously-born wombs."

Among the form-sphere Brahmās, first — beings of the spontaneously-born womb — thirty-nine kinds of matter arise together with the rebirth-linking consciousness, by way of four groups: the eye-decad, the ear-decad, the physical-basis-decad, and the life-nonad. But among other beings of the moisture-born and spontaneously-born wombs, excepting the form-sphere Brahmās, at the maximum, seventy kinds of matter arise, by way of the eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-, physical-basis-, and sex-faculty-decads; and these occur invariably among the gods. Herein, color, smell, taste, nutritive essence, the four elements, eye-sensitivity, and the life-faculty — this group of matter, ten kinds in measure, is called the eye-decad; the rest should be understood in the same way. But at the minimum, thirty kinds of matter arise, by way of the tongue-, body-, and physical-basis-decads, in the case of one born congenitally blind, deaf, without a nose, and sexless. Between the maximum and the minimum, the intermediate variations should be understood accordingly.

Having understood this, further — "by aggregate, object, destination, root, feeling, joy, initial thought, and sustained thought, the distinction of sameness and difference between decease and rebirth-linking should be fully understood."

The meaning is: with regard to this twofold rebirth-linking — mixed and unmixed with matter — and the decease-consciousness immediately preceding it, the distinction of sameness and difference between them should be known by way of these factors: the aggregates and the rest.

How so? Sometimes, immediately after a four-aggregate decease from a formless state, a four-aggregate rebirth-linking occurs, not even different in its object. Sometimes, immediately after a decease with a non-exalted, external object, a rebirth-linking occurs with an exalted, internal object — this, at least, is the method within the formless planes alone. But sometimes, immediately after a four-aggregate decease from a formless state, a five-aggregate sense-sphere rebirth-linking occurs. Sometimes, immediately after a five-aggregate decease from the sense sphere or the form sphere, a four-aggregate formless rebirth-linking occurs. So too: rebirth-linking with a present object may occur after decease with a past object; rebirth-linking into one kind of bad destination may occur after decease from one kind of good destination; rebirth-linking with roots may occur after a rootless decease; rebirth-linking with three roots may occur after a decease with two roots; rebirth-linking accompanied by joy may occur after a decease accompanied by equanimity; rebirth-linking with joy as a jhāna-factor may occur after a decease without it; rebirth-linking with initial thought may occur after a decease without initial thought; rebirth-linking with sustained thought may occur after a decease without sustained thought; rebirth-linking with both initial and sustained thought may occur after a decease with neither — and this should be applied, as appropriate, in the reverse direction as well, case by case.

"Having thus obtained its conditions, this mere phenomenon goes on to another state of being; there is no transmigration of it from that former state, nor does it come to be here without a cause from there."

Thus, it is said, this mere material or formless phenomenon, having obtained its conditions and arising, "goes on to another state of being" — not a being, not a soul. And there is neither any transmigration of it here from the past state of being, nor any coming-into-being here without a cause from that past state. This we shall make clear by means of the well-known sequence of a human being's decease and rebirth-linking.

For in the past state of being, unable to bear the concurrence of the unbearable, deathly, knife-like pains that cut through every joint of every limb, whether arising spontaneously or through violence, as death draws near, the body drying up by stages like a green palm leaf thrown into the sun's heat, when the faculties beginning with the eye have ceased and only the body-faculty, mind-faculty, and life-faculty, resting on the mere heart-basis, remain established, the consciousness that depends on that same, still-remaining heart-basis of the moment occurs, taking as its object one or another of the following: kamma — meaning a formation that has obtained a remaining condition, either heavily indulged in or done immediately before death — or an object presented by that same kamma, called a sign of kamma or a sign of destination. Occurring in this way, since craving and ignorance have not been abandoned, it "bends" toward that object through craving, which conceals its drawback under ignorance's own concealment, and the conascent formations "toss" it forward. Bent by craving and tossed by the formations in this continuous succession, like one crossing an irrigation channel by grasping a rope tied to a tree on the near bank, it lets go of its former support and, whether relishing or not relishing the further support set up by that kamma, occurs solely through such conditions as the object and the rest.

And herein, the former consciousness is called "decease," from its falling away; the latter is called "rebirth-linking," from its linking on to the beginning of another state of being. This should be understood: it has neither come here from the former state of being, nor has it come to be here without a cause — namely, kamma, the formations, the inclination of consciousness, the object, and the rest — from that former state.

"Here, illustrations for this could be an echo and the like; by the connection of the continuity, there is neither strict oneness nor strict otherness."

Herein, for this consciousness's not coming here from the former state of being, and yet its arising with a cause included in the former state of being, illustrations such as an echo, a lamp's flame, a seal-impression, and a reflected image could be given. For just as an echo, a lamp's flame, a seal-impression, and a shadow have sound and the like as their cause, without themselves having traveled from elsewhere — just so is this consciousness.

And herein, by reason of the connection of the continuity, there is neither strict oneness nor strict otherness. For if, given the connection of the continuity, there were strict oneness, then curds could not come to be from milk; and if there were strict otherness, then curds would not be dependent on milk in the first place. The same method applies to all cause-and-caused-arisen things. And if it were otherwise, the whole of the world's conventional usage would be destroyed — and that is an undesirable consequence. Therefore, here, neither strict oneness nor strict otherness should be accepted.

Here it might be asked: is it not so that, given this appearance without transmigration, since the aggregates belonging to this present human state have ceased, and since the kamma that is the condition for the result does not itself go over there, the result would then belong to someone else, and would come from someone else — and, there being no one to experience it, whose would that result be? Therefore this arrangement is not a sound one. To this it is said — "this result belongs to the same continuity, not to another, nor does it come from another; the cultivation of seeds is what establishes the truth of this matter."

For, since a result arising within a single continuity has already had strict sameness and strict difference ruled out with respect to it, that result does not belong to another, nor does it come from another. And the cultivation of seeds is what establishes this very point. For when cultivation has been performed on a mango seed and the like, a distinct fruit, having obtained a condition in the continuity of that same seed, arising after an interval of time, does not arise from other seeds, nor conditioned by the cultivation of others; and neither do those seeds, nor that cultivation, themselves reach the place of the fruit. This matter should be understood by this analogy. And this same point should also be understood by way of learning, skills, medicines, and the like, applied to a child's body, and their fruits appearing, after an interval of time, in the grown body and the rest.

As for what was said — "there being no one to experience it, whose would that result be" — herein: "the convention of 'one who experiences' is established simply by the arising of the result, just as the convention 'the tree bears fruit' is established by the tree's fruit having arisen."

For just as, when the tree-fruit, which is a part of the states called "tree," arises, the tree itself is said to "bear fruit" or to "have borne fruit," so too, simply by the arising of the pleasant or painful result called "experience," which is a part of the aggregates called "god" or "human being," that god or human being is said to "experience" it, or to be "happy" or "suffering." Therefore, there is no need here for any further, separate thing called an "experiencer."

And if someone should say: "even so, these formations would be a condition for the result either while existing or while not existing; and if while existing, they would have to yield their result at the very moment of their own occurrence; but if while not existing, they would have to be forever fruit-bearing, both before and after their occurrence" — to him this should be said: "these are conditions by virtue of having been done, not by virtue of forever bearing fruit; the illustration of a guarantor and the like should be understood here."

For it is precisely by virtue of having been done that formations become a condition for their own result — not by virtue of existing or not existing. As it is said: "through the having-been-done and having-been-accumulated of sense-sphere wholesome kamma, resultant eye-consciousness arises," and so on. And, having been, as appropriate, a condition for their own result, they do not go on being fruit-bearing thereafter, since the result, once arisen, is simply a result. In clarifying this point, the illustration of a guarantor and the like should be understood. For just as, in the world, one who stands surety for the fulfillment of some obligation on another's behalf — whether by buying goods or by taking a loan — the mere performance of that act alone is a condition for the fulfillment of that obligation and the rest; it does not matter whether the act itself still exists or not; nor is he still bound to guarantee it further, beyond that fulfillment of the obligation. Why? Because the fulfilling and the rest have already been done. In just the same way, formations too become a condition for their own result simply by virtue of having been done, and, having duly given their result, they do not go on bearing further results after that. By this point, the occurrence, conditioned by the formations, of rebirth-linking consciousness — occurring in two ways, mixed and unmixed with matter — has been shown.

Now, in order to dispel confusion regarding all these thirty-two kinds of resultant consciousness together — "by way of rebirth-linking and the course of life, among the states of being and the rest, the formations should be understood, namely which they are conditions for, and how."

Herein, the three states of being, the four wombs, the five destinations, the seven stations of consciousness, and the nine abodes of beings — these are called "the states of being and the rest." Among these states of being and the rest, at rebirth-linking and in the course of life, it should be understood which resultant states of consciousness these formations are conditions for, and how they are conditions.

Herein, among the meritorious formations, first: the meritorious formation consisting of the eight sense-sphere volitions is, without distinction, a condition, in two ways — by the kamma condition operating at a different time and by the decisive support condition — for nine resultant states of consciousness at rebirth-linking in a good sense-sphere destination. The meritorious formation consisting of the five form-sphere wholesome volitions is a condition, in the same two ways, for five resultant states of consciousness, only at rebirth-linking in form-sphere being.

But the sense-sphere formation just described, in a good sense-sphere destination, is a condition, in the same two ways, for seven limited resultant states of consciousness — excepting the rootless mind-consciousness-element accompanied by equanimity — only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. That same formation, in form-sphere being, is likewise a condition, in the same way, for five resultant states of consciousness, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. And in a bad sense-sphere destination, that same formation is likewise a condition for all eight limited resultant states of consciousness, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. Herein, in hell, this condition operates on the occasion of an encounter with a desirable object — as when the Elder Mahāmoggallāna made his visits to hell and the like; but among animals and among petas of great power, a desirable object is indeed obtainable more generally.

That same sense-sphere formation, in a good sense-sphere destination, is likewise a condition for all sixteen wholesome-resultant states of consciousness, both in the course of life and at rebirth-linking. And the meritorious formation, without distinction, is likewise a condition, in form-sphere being, for ten resultant states of consciousness, both in the course of life and at rebirth-linking.

The demeritorious formation, consisting of the twelve unwholesome volitions, is likewise a condition, in a bad sense-sphere destination, for one consciousness only at rebirth-linking, not in the course of life; for six, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking; and for all seven unwholesome-resultant states of consciousness, both in the course of life and at rebirth-linking.

But in a good sense-sphere destination, that same demeritorious formation is likewise a condition for those same seven, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. In form-sphere being, it is likewise a condition for four resultant states of consciousness, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking — and this occurs, in the sense sphere, by way of the seeing of an undesirable visible form or the hearing of an undesirable sound; but in the Brahmā world, there is simply no such thing as an undesirable visible form and the rest — and likewise in the sense-sphere heavens.

The imperturbable formation, in formless being, is likewise a condition for four resultant states of consciousness, both in the course of life and at rebirth-linking.

Thus, so far, by way of rebirth-linking and the course of life within the states of being, it should be understood which these formations are conditions for, and how they are conditions. By this same method, it should be understood also with respect to the wombs and the rest.

Herein, this is merely an indication of the general outline, taken from the beginning. For, among these formations: the meritorious formation, first, having given rebirth-linking in two states of being, generates the whole of its own result there; likewise in four wombs beginning with the egg-born, in the two destinations called deva and human, and in the four stations of consciousness called: those with diverse bodies and diverse perceptions, those with diverse bodies and uniform perception, those with uniform bodies and diverse perception, and those with uniform bodies and uniform perception. But in the abode of non-percipient beings, since this formation fashions matter alone, it gives rebirth-linking in exactly four abodes of beings and generates there the whole of its own result. Therefore, in these two states of being, four wombs, two destinations, four stations of consciousness, and four abodes of beings, it is, in the manner already stated, a condition for twenty-one resultant states of consciousness, as appropriate, both at rebirth-linking and in the course of life.

But the demeritorious formation, since it ripens, by way of rebirth-linking, only in a single state of being — the sense sphere — in four wombs, in the remaining three destinations, in the single station of consciousness called "diverse bodies, uniform perception," and in that same single abode of beings — therefore it is, in that one state of being, four wombs, three destinations, one station of consciousness, and one abode of beings, in the manner already stated, a condition for seven resultant states of consciousness, both at rebirth-linking and in the course of life.

But the imperturbable formation, since it ripens, by way of rebirth-linking, only in a single state of being — the formless — in the single spontaneously-born womb, in the single deva destination, in the three stations of consciousness beginning with the base of infinite space, and in the four abodes of beings beginning with the base of infinite space, therefore it is, in that one state of being, one womb, one destination, three stations of consciousness, and four abodes of beings, in the manner already stated, a condition for four kinds of consciousness, both at rebirth-linking and in the course of life. Thus — "by way of rebirth-linking and the course of life, among the states of being and the rest, the formations should be understood, namely which they are conditions for, and how."

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on formations, consciousness."

In the section "dependent on consciousness, name-and-form": "by the division of name-and-form, by its occurrence among the states of being and the rest, by inclusion, and by the mode of conditioning — the discernment should be understood."

"By the division of name-and-form": herein, "name" is the three aggregates — feeling and the rest — since they bend toward their object; "form" is the four great elements and the matter derived from the four great elements. Their division has already been stated in the discussion of the aggregates. Thus, so far, the discernment by way of the division of name-and-form should be understood.

"By its occurrence among the states of being and the rest": herein, name occurs, excepting one abode of beings, in all states of being, wombs, destinations, stations of consciousness, and the remaining abodes of beings; form occurs in two states of being, four wombs, five destinations, the first four stations of consciousness, and five abodes of beings.

Now, this name-and-form occurring in this way: since, at the moment of rebirth-linking for the sexless womb-born and for the egg-born, two groups of continuity arise from matter, by way of the physical-basis-decad and the body-decad, together with the three formless aggregates — therefore, in detail, twenty items from matter, together with the three formless aggregates: these twenty-three items should be understood as "name-and-form conditioned by consciousness."

And since, for spontaneously-born beings such as those of the Brahmā's retinue, at the moment of rebirth-linking, four groups of continuity arise from matter, by way of the eye-, ear-, and physical-basis-decads, and the life-nonad, together with the three formless aggregates — therefore, in detail, thirty-nine items from matter, together with the three formless aggregates: these forty-two items should be understood as "name-and-form conditioned by consciousness."

But in the sense sphere, since, for the remaining spontaneously-born and moisture-born beings with sex faculty and complete sense bases, at the moment of rebirth-linking, seven groups of continuity arise from matter, together with the three formless aggregates — therefore, in detail, seventy items from matter, together with the three formless aggregates: these seventy-three items should be understood as "name-and-form conditioned by consciousness." This is the maximum. By way of the minimum, however, the count should be understood by successively reducing it according to whichever groups of continuity of matter are lacking in each particular case.

But for formless beings, there are simply the three formless aggregates. For non-percipient beings, there is simply the life-faculty-nonad, from matter. This, then, is the method at rebirth-linking.

But in the course of life, everywhere in the region where matter occurs, at the moment the rebirth-linking consciousness persists, a pure octad of temperature-produced matter arises, occurring together with the rebirth-linking consciousness. The rebirth-linking consciousness itself, however, does not produce matter. For, just as a man who has fallen over a precipice is unable to be a support for another, so too, on account of the weakness of its own weak physical basis, it is unable to produce matter. But from the rebirth-linking consciousness onward, starting with the first life-continuum, a pure octad of consciousness-produced matter arises; and, at the time sound appears, starting from the moment of rebirth-linking onward, a nonad of sound produced by the ongoing temperature and by consciousness. But for those beings born from a womb who live on edible food, it is said: "whatever food, drink, and nourishment his mother partakes of, by that the man in his mother's womb is sustained" — hence, once the body has been reached by the nourishment swallowed by the mother, a pure octad of nutriment-produced matter arises; and, for spontaneously-born beings, when they first swallow their own saliva that has come into their mouth, a pure octad of nutriment-produced matter likewise arises. Thus: the pure octad of nutriment-produced matter, together with, at the maximum, the two nonads of temperature- and consciousness-produced matter, making twenty-six kinds; together with the kamma-produced matter already stated as arising three times in each single mind-moment, of seventy kinds — ninety-six kinds of matter in all, together with the three formless aggregates: ninety-nine items in brief. Or, since sound is irregular, appearing only on occasion, by removing both nonads that include it, these ninety-seven items should be understood, as appropriate, as "name-and-form conditioned by consciousness" for all beings.

As for the kamma-produced matter here: even though it establishes itself first of all, in every state of being, womb, destination, station of consciousness, and abode of beings, it is unable to stand without being supported by the matter produced by the other three sources; nor can that matter produced by the other three sources stand without being supported by it. Rather, like bundles of reeds set upright on four sides, buffeted by the wind, or like shipwrecked sailors who have found some support amid the great ocean, buffeted by the force of the waves — just so, these, mutually supporting one another, stand without falling, and continue for one year, for two years … even for a hundred years, for as long as those beings' lifespan or their merit lasts. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of occurrence among the states of being and the rest should be understood.

"By inclusion": herein, whatever is, at rebirth-linking and in the course of life in formless being, and in the course of life in five-constituent being, "name" alone, conditioned by consciousness; and whatever is, everywhere among non-percipient beings, and in the course of life in five-constituent being, "form" alone, conditioned by consciousness; and whatever is, everywhere in five-constituent being, "name-and-form," conditioned by consciousness — all of this, whether name, or form, or name-and-form, should be understood as "name-and-form conditioned by consciousness," having been included by the method of taking one representative term to stand, in part, for the rest.

If it should be said that this is improper, since there is no consciousness among non-percipient beings — it is not improper. This, too, is answered by the verse: "that consciousness which is the cause of name-and-form is held to be twofold — resultant and non-resultant; hence this is entirely proper."

For that consciousness which is the cause of name-and-form is held to be twofold, by the division of resultant and non-resultant. And this applies here: among non-percipient beings, since their matter is produced by kamma, it is form conditioned by the formation-consciousness that occurred during the previous life; likewise, in five-constituent being, matter produced by kamma at a moment of wholesome or other consciousness during the course of life — this, too, is entirely proper. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of inclusion should be understood.

"By the mode of conditioning": herein — "resultant consciousness is a condition for name in nine ways; for the physical-basis matter, in nine ways; for the remaining matter, in eight ways. The formation-consciousness is a condition for matter in one way; but other consciousness is a condition for this or that, as appropriate."

For that name called "resultant," occurring at rebirth-linking or in the course of life, whether mixed or unmixed with matter — for it, resultant consciousness is a condition in nine ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, association, result, nutriment, faculty, presence, and non-disappearance conditions.

For the physical-basis matter, at rebirth-linking, it is a condition in nine ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, result, nutriment, faculty, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. But for the remaining matter, other than the physical-basis matter, removing the mutuality condition from these nine, it is a condition by the remaining eight conditions.

But the formation-consciousness is a condition, in the discourse method, for the matter of non-percipient beings, or for the kamma-produced matter in five-constituent being, in one way only — by the decisive support condition. All the remaining consciousness, from the first life-continuum onward, should be understood as a condition, as appropriate, for this or that name-and-form.

Here it might be asked: how, then, is this to be known — that "rebirth-linking name-and-form is conditioned by consciousness"? By scripture and by reasoning. For in the scriptures, by such passages as "states that follow along with consciousness," the state of being conditioned by consciousness is established, in many ways, for feeling and the rest. But by reasoning: "for it is established here, by consciousness-produced matter that is seen, that consciousness is a condition for matter that is not seen as well."

For, when the mind is serene or unserene, corresponding kinds of matter are seen to arise. And from what is seen, an inference can be drawn to what is not seen. By this reasoning, it should be known that, just as consciousness is a condition for consciousness-produced matter that is here seen, so too consciousness is a condition for rebirth-linking matter, which is not seen, kamma-produced though it is — for its being conditioned by that very same consciousness has come down in the Paṭṭhāna. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of the mode of conditioning should be understood.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on consciousness, name-and-form."

In the section "dependent on name-and-form, the sixfold base": "name is held to be the three aggregates; form, the elements, the physical bases, and the rest; that, having been made to stand as one representative term, is a condition for that very same kind of thing."

That name-and-form which is the condition specifically for the sixfold base: herein, "name" is the three aggregates — feeling and the rest; "form," however, is understood to be included within one's own continuity, invariably the four elements, the six physical bases, and the life-faculty. This, whether name, or form, or name-and-form, having been made to stand, by one representative term, for the rest, should be understood as a condition specifically for the sixfold base — itself, likewise, made to stand, whether the sixth base alone or the sixfold base, by one representative term, for the other. Why? Because, in formless being, name alone is the condition, and that only for the sixth base, not for any other. For it is said in the Analysis: "dependent on name, the sixth base."

Here it might be asked: how, then, is this to be known — that "name-and-form is a condition for the sixfold base"? By this or that base's presence depending on the presence of this or that name and form. But this dependent-arising will become clear only within the mode of conditioning itself. Therefore — "whether at rebirth-linking or in the course of life, it should be understood by the discerning one which is a condition for which, and how it is a condition."

Herein, this is the clarification of the meaning — "in formless being, at both rebirth-linking and in the course of life, name alone is a condition, in seven ways, or, at the minimum, in six ways."

How so? At rebirth-linking, first, at the minimum, name is a condition for the sixth base in seven ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, association, result, presence, and non-disappearance conditions.

In the course of life, too, the resultant name is a condition in just the way already stated; but the other, non-resultant name, at the minimum, is a condition by the six conditions already stated, excepting the result condition.

"In another state of being too, name, in just the same way, is a condition, at rebirth-linking, for the sixth base; for the other bases, it is a condition in six ways."

For, other than in formless being — that is, in five-constituent being as well — that resultant name, in partnership with the heart-basis, is a condition for the sixth base, the mind-base, at the minimum, in seven ways, in just the way stated for formless being. But for the other five bases — the eye-base and the rest — in partnership with the four great elements, it is a condition in six ways: by the conascence, dependence, result, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions.

"In the course of life, too, it is the same: the resultant is a condition for the resultant; the non-resultant is a condition for the non-resultant sixth base, in six ways."

For, in the course of life too, in five-constituent being, resultant name is, at the minimum, a condition for the resultant sixth base in seven ways, just as at rebirth-linking. But non-resultant name is a condition for the non-resultant sixth base, at the minimum, in six ways, removing the result condition from those seven.

"There, too, the resultant is a condition for the remaining five bases in four ways; the non-resultant, too, is declared in just the same way."

For there too, in the course of life, resultant name, as well as the other kind, having as its basis the eye-sensitivity and the rest, is a condition for the remaining five bases — the eye-base and the rest — in four ways: by the postnascence, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. And just as the resultant is declared, so too is the non-resultant declared in exactly the same way. Thus, so far, it should be understood which base name alone, at rebirth-linking or in the course of life, is a condition for, and how it is a condition.

"Form, herein, in formless being, is not a condition for even a single base; but in five-aggregate being, it is."

"From matter, at rebirth-linking, the physical basis is a condition for the sixth base in six ways; the elements are, without distinction, a condition for the five bases in four ways."

For, from matter, at rebirth-linking, the physical-basis matter is a condition for the sixth base, the mind-base, in six ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. But the four elements, without distinction, at rebirth-linking and in the course of life, are, according to whichever base arises, a condition for all five bases — the eye-base and the rest — in four ways: by the conascence, dependence, presence, and non-disappearance conditions.

"The life-faculty is a condition for these in three ways; and nutriment, in the course of life; those same five bases are a condition for the sixth base in six ways; the physical basis is a condition for that same sixth base in five ways."

For these five — the eye-base and the rest — at rebirth-linking and in the course of life, material life is a condition in three ways: by the presence, non-disappearance, and faculty conditions. And nutriment is a condition in three ways: by the presence, non-disappearance, and nutriment conditions — and this only for those beings who live on nutriment, only once nutriment has reached the body in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. But those same five bases — the eye-base and the rest — are a condition for the sixth base, the mind-base classed as eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness, in six ways: by the dependence, prenascence, faculty, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. But, excepting the five sense-consciousnesses, the physical-basis matter is a condition for the remaining mind-base itself in five ways: by the dependence, prenascence, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions, only in the course of life, not at rebirth-linking. Thus, it should be understood which base form alone, at rebirth-linking or in the course of life, is a condition for, and how it is a condition.

"And name-and-form together — which is a condition for which, and how, everywhere — this too should be understood by the discerning one."

For example: at rebirth-linking, first, in five-constituent being, name-and-form — called the three aggregates together with the physical-basis matter — is a condition for the sixth base by such conditions as conascence, mutuality, dependence, result, association, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance. This, here, is merely the outline. But since it is possible to work out everything in accordance with the method already stated, the full detail is not shown here.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on name-and-form, the sixfold base."

In the section "dependent on the sixfold base, contact": "in brief, contacts are simply six — eye-contact and the rest; in detail, they become thirty-two, just like consciousness."

In brief, "contact conditioned by the sixfold base" is these six alone: eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, and mind-contact. In detail, however, eye-contact and the rest are ten — five wholesome-resultant and five unwholesome-resultant — and the remaining twenty-two are those associated with the twenty-two mundane resultant states of consciousness already described; thus all of them together become thirty-two, just like the consciousness already described as conditioned by the formations.

As for the sixfold base which is the condition for this thirty-two-fold contact: herein — "the wise hold 'the sixfold base' to mean the internal eye and the rest together with the sixth, or, together with the six external ones as well."

Herein, those who explain that "this is a discourse on the occurrence of what has been clung to by kamma," showing the condition and the conditioned-arisen as both included within one's own single continuity — they, following the canonical text "contact conditioned by the sixth base," hold that, in formless being, the sixth base alone, and elsewhere, the sixfold base by way of full inclusion, is the condition for contact; and, having made this a case of one representative term standing for the rest, they wish "the sixfold base" to mean the internal eye and the rest together with the sixth.

But those who explain that only the conditioned-arisen is included within a single continuity, while the condition may belong even to a different continuity — they, explaining every single base whatsoever that is a condition for contact, including even the external ones, wish "the sixfold base" to mean the internal eye and the rest together with the sixth, as well as the external visible-form base and the rest.

Here it might be asked: no single contact comes to be from all the bases together, nor do all contacts come from a single base — so why is it said, as though it were one, "contact conditioned by the sixfold base"? Here is the answer: this is true; not all contacts come to be from all the bases, nor all from a single one — but a single one does come to be from several. Just as eye-contact comes to be from the eye-base, the visible-form base, the mind-base classed as eye-consciousness, and the remaining associated-mental-state base — so it should be construed everywhere, as appropriate. Precisely for this reason — "this contact is shown, by the Blessed One, to arise from several bases, expressed here, by him, in the singular number."

"Expressed in the singular number": the meaning is that, by this singular expression "contact conditioned by the sixfold base," it is shown by the Blessed One that a single contact comes to be from several bases. As for the bases: "five internal bases are, in six ways; from that, one internal base is, in nine ways; the six external ones, as appropriate — this should clarify their status as conditions."

Herein, this is the clarification: the eye-base and the other four bases are, first, a condition for the fivefold contact — eye-contact and the rest — in six ways: by the dependence, prenascence, faculty, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. Beyond that, the single resultant mind-base is a condition for the resultant mind-contact of manifold kinds in nine ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, result, nutriment, faculty, association, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. Among the external bases, the visible-form base is a condition for eye-contact in four ways: by the object, prenascence, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. Likewise the sound base and the rest are a condition for ear-contact and the rest. But for mind-contact, those same external bases, and the mental-object base as well, are conditions in the same way, and also simply by way of the object condition alone. Thus the six external bases should clarify, as appropriate, their status as conditions for this.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on the sixfold base, contact."

In the section "dependent on contact, feeling": "feeling, described by way of door, is simply six — that born of eye-contact and the rest; by way of subdivision, these are held to be eighty-nine."

For this section, too, in the Analysis, it is said: "feeling born of eye-contact. Feeling born of ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-, mind-contact" — thus, by way of door, feeling is said to be simply six; but, by subdivision, since it is associated with eighty-nine kinds of consciousness, it is held to be eighty-nine.

"But among these feelings, here it is the thirty-two feelings associated specifically with resultant consciousness that are meant, so it is said."

"There, in the five sense doors, contact is a condition for the five kinds of feeling in eight ways; for the rest, contact is a condition in one way; in the mind-door too, it is the same."

Herein, in the five sense-doors, contact — eye-contact and the rest — is a condition for the five kinds of feeling having the eye-sensitivity and the other physical bases in eight ways: by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, result, nutriment, association, presence, and non-disappearance conditions. But for the remaining sense-sphere resultant feelings, occurring in each single door by way of receiving, investigating, and registering, that same contact is a condition in one way only, by the decisive support condition.

"In the mind-door too, it is the same": for, in the mind-door too, that conascent mind-contact is likewise a condition, in eight ways, for the sense-sphere resultant feelings occurring by way of registration, and also for the three-plane resultant feelings occurring by way of rebirth-linking, life-continuum, and decease. But for those sense-sphere feelings occurring in the mind-door by way of registration, the mind-contact associated with mind-door-adverting is a condition in one way only, by the decisive support condition.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on contact, feeling."

In the section "dependent on feeling, craving": "here, craving is shown by way of the division into craving for visible forms and the rest — six kinds; each single one of these, by way of its mode of occurring, is held to be threefold."

For in this section, just as a son is named after his father — "the merchant's son," "the brahmin's son" — so too, in the Analysis, craving is shown as sixfold, named after its object: "craving for visible forms. Craving for sounds … odors … tastes … tangibles … mental objects."

But among these cravings, each single craving, by way of its mode of occurring, is held to be threefold: craving for sensual pleasure, craving for being, and craving for non-being. For when craving for visible forms occurs, relishing a visible-form object that has come into the eye's range by way of sensual gratification, then it is called "craving for sensual pleasure." When that same object occurs together with the eternalist view occurring as "it is permanent, eternal," then it is called "craving for being" — for lust accompanied by the eternalist view is called "craving for being." But when that same object occurs together with the annihilationist view occurring as "it is cut off, it perishes," then it is called "craving for non-being" — for lust accompanied by the annihilationist view is called "craving for non-being." The same method applies to craving for sounds and the rest. These make eighteen kinds of craving.

These eighteen, with respect to internal visible forms and the rest, and eighteen more, with respect to external ones, make thirty-six. Thus, thirty-six with respect to the past, thirty-six with respect to the future, and thirty-six with respect to the present make one hundred and eight kinds of craving. These, reduced again to their essential measure, should be understood as simply six, by way of the objects — visible forms and the rest — or simply three, by way of craving for sensual pleasure and the rest.

And since these beings, just as a wet-nurse, having relished a child, and out of possessiveness for that child, cares for it devotedly — so too, having relished the feeling that arises by way of a visible-form or other object, and out of possessiveness for that feeling, render great honor to painters, musicians, perfumers, cooks, weavers, and physicians skilled in preparing tonics, and the like — all these providers of a visible-form or other object — therefore it should be understood that all of this craving, in every instance, is conditioned by feeling.

"And since, here, only resultant pleasant feeling is meant — a single kind — it is a condition for craving in one way only."

"In one way": it is a condition solely by the decisive support condition. Or, since — "one who suffers longs for pleasure; one who is happy desires still more; but equanimity, being peaceful, is spoken of as pleasure itself. Therefore, all three feelings alike are conditions for craving; and craving is said, by the Great Sage, to be conditioned by feeling. And since craving, conditioned by feeling, does not occur without the underlying tendency, it therefore does not occur for the brahmin who has completed his task."

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on feeling, craving."

In the section "dependent on craving, clinging": "the clingings are four; these should be clarified by way of the division of their meaning, by their nature in brief and in detail, and by their sequence."

Herein, this is the clarification — clinging to sensual pleasure, clinging to views, clinging to rules and vows, and clinging to a doctrine of self: these, first, are the four clingings here. Their division of meaning is this: it clings to sensual pleasure, meaning the object of desire — hence "clinging to sensual pleasure"; or, it is both sensual desire and clinging — hence, again, "clinging to sensual pleasure." "Clinging" means a firm grasping; the prefix "upa-" has the sense of firmness here, as in "intense distress," "close at hand," and the like. Likewise, it is both a view and a clinging — hence "clinging to views"; or, it clings to a view — hence "clinging to views." For, in such passages as "both self and world are eternal," a later view clings to an earlier view. Likewise, it clings to rules and vows — hence "clinging to rules and vows"; or, it is both a rule-and-vow and a clinging — hence, again, "clinging to rules and vows." For such practices as imitating the behavior and habits of cattle are, by the conviction "purification is thus," themselves clingings. Likewise, that by which they say something is a doctrine; that by which they cling is a clinging. What do they say, or cling to? A self. The clinging to a doctrine of self is "clinging to a doctrine of self"; or, that by which they cling to a mere doctrine of self as "self" is "clinging to a doctrine of self." This, first, is the division of their meaning.

As for the nature of these, in brief and in detail: clinging to sensual pleasure, first, since it comes down as "and what, herein, is clinging to sensual pleasure? Whatever desire for sensual pleasure, lust for sensual pleasure, delight in sensual pleasure, craving for sensual pleasure, affection for sensual pleasure, fever for sensual pleasure, infatuation with sensual pleasure, or attachment to sensual pleasure there is with respect to sensual pleasures — this is called clinging to sensual pleasure" — is said, in brief, to be simply the firmness of craving. "The firmness of craving" means precisely a later craving, made firm by the decisive support condition of an earlier craving. But some say: "craving is the longing for an object not yet obtained, like a thief's reaching out his hand in the dark; clinging is the grasping of an object already obtained, like that same thief's grasping of the goods. And these states are opposed to fewness of desire and contentment; likewise, they are rooted in the suffering of seeking and guarding." The remaining three clingings, in brief, are simply views.

In detail, however, the firmness of that same craving already described, with its hundred-and-eight subdivisions among visible forms and the rest, is clinging to sensual pleasure. Wrong view with ten grounds is clinging to views. The misapprehension that "purification comes through rules and vows" is clinging to rules and vows. Personality-view with twenty grounds is clinging to a doctrine of self. This, herein, is the nature of these, in brief and in detail.

"By sequence": herein, there are three kinds of sequence — the sequence of arising, the sequence of abandoning, and the sequence of teaching. Herein, since there is, in the beginningless round, no such thing as a first arising for this, the sequence of arising is not spoken of in the strict sense for the defilements. But in a looser sense, generally, within a single existence, the adherence to eternalism or annihilationism is preceded by the grasping of a self; from that, for one grasping "this self is eternal," clinging to rules and vows arises for the purpose of purifying the self; for one grasping "it is annihilated," clinging to sensual pleasure arises, having no regard for another world. Thus, first, clinging to a doctrine of self; then clinging to views, to rules and vows, and to sensual pleasure — this is their sequence of arising within a single existence.

And herein, clinging to views and the rest are abandoned first, since they are to be destroyed by the path of stream-entry; clinging to sensual pleasure, afterward, since it is to be destroyed by the path of arahantship. This is their sequence of abandoning.

But, among these, clinging to sensual pleasure is taught first, on account of its wide range and its evident character. For it has a wide range, being associated with eight kinds of consciousness, whereas the others have a narrow range, being associated with only four kinds of consciousness; and clinging to sensual pleasure is evident to people, in general, on account of their delight in attachment, whereas the others are not. Or: for one clinging to sensual pleasure, in order to obtain sensual pleasures, there arises an abundance of things such as excitement over omens and auspicious signs; that itself is a view — hence, immediately after it, clinging to views. That, when it splits apart, becomes twofold: clinging to rules and vows, and clinging to a doctrine of self. Between these two, clinging to rules and vows is taught first, since it can be understood as gross even upon merely seeing someone imitate the behavior of a cow or a dog; clinging to a doctrine of self, being subtle, is taught last. This is their sequence of teaching.

"And craving, here, is a condition for the first of these in one way; it is a condition for the remaining three in seven ways, or even in eight."

And herein, among the four clingings thus taught, craving for sensual pleasure is a condition for the first, clinging to sensual pleasure, in one way only, by the decisive support condition, since it arises within objects already delighted in by craving. But for the remaining three, it is a condition in seven ways — by the conascence, mutuality, dependence, association, presence, non-disappearance, and root conditions — or, together with the decisive support condition, in eight ways as well. And when it is a condition by way of the decisive support condition, it is then not conascent with what it conditions.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on craving, clinging."

In the section "dependent on clinging, being": "by meaning, by nature, by the point of restating it, by division and inclusion, and by which is a condition for which — the discernment should be understood."

Herein, that which comes to be is "being." It is of two kinds: kamma-being and rebirth-being. As it is said: "being is of two kinds: there is kamma-being, and there is rebirth-being." Herein, kamma itself is being — hence "kamma-being"; likewise, rebirth itself is being — hence "rebirth-being." And here, rebirth comes to be — hence "being." But kamma, just as it is called, on account of being the cause of happiness, "the happy arising of Buddhas," should likewise be understood to be called "being" by a figure of speech naming the cause after its result, on account of being the cause of being. Thus, so far, the discernment by way of meaning should be understood.

By nature, kamma-being, first, is, in brief, volition, and also the states classed as kamma, associated with volition, beginning with covetousness. As it is said: "and what, herein, is kamma-being? The meritorious formation, the demeritorious formation, the imperturbable formation, whether of a limited or an exalted plane — this is called kamma-being. All kamma whatsoever that leads to being is kamma-being." Herein, "the meritorious formation" means the thirteen volitions; "the demeritorious formation," the twelve; "the imperturbable formation," the four volitions. And by "whether of a limited or an exalted plane," the lesser or greater fruitfulness of those same volitions is expressed. But by "all kamma whatsoever that leads to being," the states associated with volition, beginning with covetousness, are expressed.

But rebirth-being, in brief, is the aggregates produced by kamma; by subdivision, it is of nine kinds. As it is said: "and what, herein, is rebirth-being? Sense-sphere being, form-sphere being, formless being, percipient being, non-percipient being, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient being, one-constituent being, four-constituent being, five-constituent being — this is called rebirth-being." Herein, being called "sensual pleasure" is sense-sphere being; the same method applies to form-sphere and formless being. The being of those possessing perception, or that in which perception exists, is percipient being; the reverse is non-percipient being. Neither a coarse perception, on account of its absence, nor no perception at all, on account of the presence of a subtle one, exists in this being — hence, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient being. Being intermingled with a single constituent, form, is one-constituent being; or, this being has a single constituent — hence, one-constituent being. The same method applies to four-constituent and five-constituent being. Herein, sense-sphere being consists of five clung-to aggregates; likewise form-sphere being. Formless being consists of four; percipient being, five. Non-percipient being consists of one clung-to aggregate. Neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient being consists of four. One-constituent being and the rest consist of one, four, or five clung-to aggregates respectively. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of nature, too, should be understood.

"By the point of restating it": although, granted, in the exposition of formations it is likewise the meritorious formation and the rest that were spoken of, just as here in the exposition of being — even so, this restatement is genuinely meaningful, since the former passage concerns their being a condition for rebirth-linking here by way of past kamma, while these here concern their being a condition for rebirth-linking in the future by way of present kamma. Or: earlier, in the manner beginning "and what, herein, is the meritorious formation? Wholesome sense-sphere volition," it was said that volition alone constitutes the formations; but here, from the statement "all kamma whatsoever that leads to being," the states associated with volition are meant as well. And earlier, only the kamma that conditions consciousness was called "formations"; here, even that which produces non-percipient being is included. Or, to say no more: in "dependent on ignorance are formations," only the meritorious formation and the rest — wholesome and unwholesome states — were mentioned; but here, in "dependent on clinging, being," since rebirth-being too is included, wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate states are all mentioned. Therefore, in every respect, this restatement is indeed meaningful. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of the point of restating it, too, should be understood.

"By division and inclusion": for, conditioned by clinging to sensual pleasure, kamma that produces sense-sphere being is performed — that is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that are rebirth-being. The same method applies to form-sphere and formless being. Thus, conditioned by clinging to sensual pleasure, there are two sense-sphere beings, together with the percipient being and five-constituent being included within them; two form-sphere beings, together with the percipient being, non-percipient being, one-constituent being, and five-constituent being included within them; and two formless beings, together with the percipient being, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient being, and four-constituent being included within them — six beings altogether, together with those included within them. And just as, conditioned by clinging to sensual pleasure, there are six beings together with those included within them, so too for the remaining kinds of clinging as their condition. Thus, conditioned by clinging, there are, by way of division, twenty-four beings together with those included within them.

By way of inclusion, however, taking kamma-being and rebirth-being together as one: conditioned by clinging to sensual pleasure, together with those included within it, there is one sense-sphere being. Likewise form-sphere and formless being — three beings in all. So too for the remaining kinds of clinging as their condition. Thus, conditioned by clinging, by way of inclusion, together with those included within them, there are twelve beings. Moreover, without distinction, kamma leading to sense-sphere being, conditioned by clinging, is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that are rebirth-being. The same method applies to form-sphere and formless being. Thus, conditioned by clinging, together with those included within them, there are two sense-sphere beings, two form-sphere beings, and two formless beings — six beings, by way of inclusion, in this further alternative reckoning. Or, without even approaching the division into kamma-being and rebirth-being, together with those included within them, there are, by way of sense-sphere being and the rest, three beings. Without even approaching the division into sense-sphere being and the rest, there are, by way of kamma-being and rebirth-being, two beings. And without even approaching the division into kamma and rebirth at all, simply as "being conditioned by clinging," by way of being alone, there is just a single being. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of the division and inclusion of being conditioned by clinging, too, should be understood.

"And by which is a condition for which": the meaning is that the discernment here should also be understood by way of which clinging is a condition for which being. What, then, is a condition for what here? Anything at all is indeed a condition for anything at all. For a worldling is like a madman: without considering "this is fitting, this is unfitting," he simply aspires to any being whatsoever, by way of any clinging whatsoever, and simply performs any kamma whatsoever. Therefore, if some say that form- and formless being cannot come about through clinging to rules and vows, that should not be accepted. Rather, it should be accepted that any being whatsoever can come about through any clinging whatsoever.

For example: here, someone, by way of hearsay or by following a wrong view, thinks: "sensual pleasures are indeed abundant in the human world, among great warrior-noble and other such families, and in the six sense-sphere heavens" — and, deceived by listening to false teachings in order to obtain them, thinking "by this kamma, sensual pleasures are accomplished," commits bodily misconduct and the like by way of clinging to sensual pleasure; he is reborn in a state of misery through the fulfillment of that misconduct. Or, longing for sensual pleasures visible in this very life, and guarding those already obtained, he commits bodily misconduct and the like by way of clinging to sensual pleasure; he is reborn in a state of misery through the fulfillment of that misconduct. In that case, the kamma that is the cause of his rebirth is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that kamma are rebirth-being. Percipient being and five-constituent being are simply included within that.

But another, his understanding strengthened by listening to the true teaching and the like, thinking "by this kamma, sensual pleasures are accomplished," commits bodily good conduct and the like by way of clinging to sensual pleasure. He is reborn among gods or human beings through the fulfillment of that good conduct. In that case, the kamma that is the cause of his rebirth is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that kamma are rebirth-being. Percipient being and five-constituent being are simply included within that. Thus, clinging to sensual pleasure is a condition for sense-sphere being, together with its subdivisions and what is included within it.

Another, having heard, or having imagined for himself, that "in form and formless being, sensual pleasures are even more abundant than there," produces, precisely by way of clinging to sensual pleasure, the form- and formless-sphere attainments, and, by the power of that attainment, is reborn in the form- or formless-sphere Brahmā world. In that case, the kamma that is the cause of his rebirth is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that kamma are rebirth-being. Percipient being, non-percipient being, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient being, and one-, four-, and five-constituent being are simply included within that. Thus, clinging to sensual pleasure is a condition even for form- and formless being, together with their subdivisions and what is included within them.

Another, taking up the annihilationist view that "this self is well and truly cut off when cut off, in either a sense-sphere state of attainment or one or another of the form- or formless states of being," performs kamma conducive to that. For him, that kamma is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that kamma are rebirth-being. Percipient being and the rest are simply included within that. Thus, clinging to views is a condition even for all three kinds of being — sense-sphere, form-sphere, and formless — together with their subdivisions and what is included within them.

Another, by way of clinging to a doctrine of self — thinking "this self is happy, free of torment, in one or another of a sense-sphere state of attainment or the form- or formless states of being" — performs kamma conducive to that. For him, that kamma is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that are rebirth-being. Percipient being and the rest are simply included within that. Thus, clinging to a doctrine of self is a condition for all three kinds of being, together with their subdivisions and what is included within them.

Another, by way of clinging to rules and vows — thinking "this rule or vow, when fulfilled, brings one to the fulfillment of happiness in one or another of a sense-sphere state of attainment or the form- or formless states of being" — performs kamma conducive to that. For him, that kamma is kamma-being; the aggregates produced by that are rebirth-being. Percipient being and the rest are simply included within that. Thus, clinging to rules and vows is a condition for all three kinds of being, together with their subdivisions and what is included within them. Thus, herein, the discernment by way of which is a condition for which should also be understood.

But how, here, is clinging a condition for which being? "Clinging is a condition for form- and formless being by the decisive support condition; it should be understood that it is also a condition for sense-sphere being by the conascence and other conditions."

For, with respect to form- and formless being, and with respect to the wholesome kamma alone within the kamma-being included in sense-sphere being, and with respect to rebirth-being — for all these, this fourfold clinging is a condition in one way only, by the decisive support condition. But in sense-sphere being, for the unwholesome kamma-being associated with itself, it is a condition by the conascence and other conditions, of the kinds: conascence, mutuality, dependence, association, presence, non-disappearance, and root. But for what is dissociated from it, it is a condition solely by the decisive support condition.

This is the detailed discussion of the phrase "dependent on clinging, being."

In the section "dependent on being, birth" and the rest, the discernment regarding birth and the rest should be understood in just the way already stated in the discussion of the truths. "Being," herein, means specifically kamma-being; for it is this that is the condition for birth, not rebirth-being. And it is a condition in two ways: by the kamma condition and by the decisive support condition.

Here it might be asked: how, then, is this to be known — that "being is a condition for birth"? By observing a distinction of inferiority, superiority, and the like even when the external conditions are complete and equal. For, even when the external conditions — the father, the mother, the sperm and blood, nutriment, and the rest — are complete and equal, a distinction of inferiority, superiority, and the like is seen even among a hundred twin beings. And this is not uncaused, since it does not exist always and for everyone; nor is it caused by anything other than kamma-being, since no other cause is found within the internal continuity of the beings it produces — it is caused precisely by kamma-being. For kamma is the cause of the distinction of inferiority, superiority, and the like among beings. Hence the Blessed One said: "kamma divides beings, that is, into the inferior and the superior." Therefore this should be known: "being is a condition for birth."

And since, when birth is absent, there is no such thing as aging-and-death, nor do the states of sorrow and the rest come to be — but when birth is present, there is aging-and-death, and, for a foolish person touched by the painful state called aging-and-death, whether connected with aging-and-death itself or connected with this or that painful state that touches him, the states of sorrow and the rest come to be. Therefore it should be understood that this birth, too, is a condition for aging-and-death and for sorrow and the rest. But it is a condition in one way only, by way of the decisive support condition.

This is the detailed discussion of "dependent on being, birth" and the rest.

Now, since sorrow and the rest are spoken of at the end here, that same ignorance which was spoken of at the beginning of this wheel of becoming, as "dependent on ignorance are formations" — it should be understood that: "ignorance is established by sorrow and the rest; this wheel of becoming has no discernible beginning; it is devoid of an agent or an experiencer; it is void with a twelvefold voidness" — and occurs constantly and continuously.

How, then, is ignorance established by sorrow and the rest here; how is this wheel of becoming without a discernible beginning; how is it devoid of an agent and an experiencer; how is it void with a twelvefold voidness? Here: sorrow, displeasure, and despair are never separate from ignorance, and lamentation, indeed, belongs only to one who is deluded; so, once these are established, ignorance too is thereby established. Moreover, it was said: "from the arising of the taints comes the arising of ignorance." And these — sorrow and the rest — arise from the arising of the taints as well.

How so? First, sorrow at the loss of an object of sensual desire arises from the arising of the taint of sensual desire. As it is said: "if, for a person set on sensual pleasure, whose desire has arisen, those sensual pleasures diminish, he is afflicted as though pierced by a dart." And as it is said: "from sensual pleasure sorrow is born."

All of these also arise from the arising of the taint of views. As it is said: "for one who remains obsessed with 'I am form, form is mine,' through the change and alteration of form, there arise sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair."

And just as they arise from the arising of the taint of views, so too from the arising of the taint of being. As it is said: "even those gods who are long-lived, beautiful, abounding in happiness, dwelling long in lofty mansions — even they, on hearing the Tathāgata's teaching of the Dhamma, fall into fear, dread, and a sense of urgency" — just like gods terrified with the fear of death upon seeing the five preliminary signs of their own impending fall.

And just as they arise from the arising of the taint of being, so too from the arising of the taint of ignorance. As it is said: "that fool, bhikkhus, experiences threefold pain and displeasure right here in this very life."

Thus, since these states arise from the arising of the taints, their own establishment thereby establishes the taints, which are themselves the cause of ignorance. And, the taints being established, since ignorance's being a condition for them depends on their being present, ignorance too is thereby established. Thus, so far, it should be understood that ignorance is established by sorrow and the rest.

And since, ignorance being thereby established by its dependence on being a condition for sorrow and the rest in this way, there is, once again, "dependent on ignorance are formations, dependent on formations, consciousness," and so on — there is no end to this succession of cause and effect. Therefore this twelve-factored wheel of becoming, occurring by way of this connection of cause and effect, is thereby established as having no discernible beginning.

If it should be said that this being so, the statement "dependent on ignorance are formations" contradicts the claim of no discernible beginning — this is not a mere statement of a beginning. Rather, it is a statement of the principal factor. For ignorance is the principal factor among the three rounds. By seizing hold of ignorance, the remaining round of defilements, and kamma and the rest, entangle the fool — just as, by seizing a snake's head, the rest of the snake's body entangles the arm. But when ignorance is cut off, liberation from them comes about — just as, when the snake's head is severed, the entangled arm is freed. As it is said: "it is precisely through the total fading away and cessation of ignorance that the cessation of formations comes about," and so on. Thus, this is a statement of that principal factor, whose seizing entails bondage and whose release entails freedom — not a mere statement of a beginning. Thus, this wheel of becoming should be understood to have no discernible beginning.

And since it is by causes such as ignorance that formations and the rest occur, therefore this wheel of becoming is devoid of any maker of saṃsāra other than these — such as a Brahmā, imagined as "a Great Brahmā, the highest, the creator" — and devoid of any experiencer of pleasure and pain other than these — such as a self, imagined as "that self of mine which speaks, which feels." Thus it should be understood as "devoid of an agent and an experiencer."

And since, here, ignorance is void of permanence, on account of being subject to arising and passing away; void of beauty, on account of being defiled and conducive to defilement; void of pleasure, on account of being oppressed by arising and passing away; and void of a self in the sense of a controlling agent, on account of occurring in dependence on conditions — and likewise the other factors, the formations and the rest — or, since ignorance is not a self, does not belong to a self, is not within a self, and does not possess a self — and likewise the other factors, the formations and the rest — therefore this wheel of becoming should be understood as "void with a twelvefold voidness."

Having understood this, further — "ignorance and craving are its root; the past and the rest are its three times; two, eight, and two again are its factors, respectively, by their own specific nature, among these times."

Of this wheel of becoming, ignorance and craving should be understood as its two root factors. This is twofold: rooted in ignorance, drawing back to the past and ending with feeling; and rooted in craving, extending forward to the future and ending with aging-and-death. Herein, the former is spoken of by way of one of views as one's habitual temperament, the latter by way of one of craving. For ignorance leads the round for those of a views-temperament, and craving leads it for those of a craving-temperament. Or: the first is for the uprooting of the annihilationist view, since it discloses the uninterrupted continuity of causes through to the arising of their result; the second is for the uprooting of the eternalist view, since it discloses the aging-and-death of what has already arisen. Or: the former is by way of one born from a womb, since it shows a successive occurrence; the latter is by way of one spontaneously born, since it shows a simultaneous arising.

And its three times are the past, present, and future. Among these, by way of what has come down in the canonical text under its own specific heading, two factors — "ignorance" and "formations" — are the past time; the eight — consciousness and the rest, ending with being — are the present time; and the two — birth and aging-and-death — are the future time. This should be understood.

Further — "this wheel, with its three connections of cause-to-effect and effect-to-cause, its inclusion into four sections, its twenty modes as spokes, and its three rounds, revolves without remaining fixed" — this, too, should be understood.

Herein, the junction between formations and rebirth-linking consciousness is called one cause-to-effect connection. The junction between feeling and craving is called one effect-to-cause connection. The junction between being and birth is one more cause-to-effect connection. Thus this should be understood as having "three connections of cause-to-effect and effect-to-cause."

The determination of these connections' beginnings and endings gives its four inclusive sections. For example: ignorance and formations are one section; consciousness, name-and-form, the sixfold base, contact, and feeling are the second; craving, clinging, and being are the third; birth and aging-and-death are the fourth. This should be understood as its "inclusion into four sections."

"Five causes in the past; a fivefold effect now; five causes now; a fivefold effect in the future."

By these twenty modes, called "spokes," it should be understood as having "twenty modes as spokes." Herein, "five causes in the past": ignorance and formations, these two, first, have already been stated. But since one who does not know the truth is agitated by craving, and one who is agitated clings, and, conditioned by that clinging, being comes to be — therefore craving, clinging, and being are included as well. Hence it is said: "in a past kamma-being, the delusion is ignorance, the exertion is the formations, the longing is craving, the approach is clinging, the volition is being — these five states, in a past kamma-being, are conditions for rebirth-linking here."

Herein, "in a past kamma-being" means: in a former kamma-being — that is, while kamma-being is being performed in a past birth. "The delusion is ignorance": whatever delusion regarding suffering and the rest there was at that time, by which, being deluded, one performs kamma — that is ignorance. "The exertion is the formations": whatever preceding volitions there were for one performing that kamma — as, for instance, the preceding volitions that arose for one who, having formed the thought "I shall give a gift," spends a month or even a year preparing the materials for the gift. But the volition of one actually placing the offering in the hands of the recipients is called "being." Or: the volition occurring in the six impulsions preceding the seventh, single adverting, is called the "exertion, the formations"; in the seventh, it is "being." Or, alternatively: any volition whatsoever is "being"; its associated states are called the "exertion, the formations." "The longing is craving": whatever longing, whatever aspiration for the result — for rebirth-being — there is in one performing kamma, that is called "craving." "The approach is clinging": that approach, grasping, adherence — occurring in the manner of "having done this, I shall enjoy sensual pleasures in such-and-such a place" or "I shall be annihilated," and the like — which serves as a condition for kamma-being, is called "clinging." "The volition is being": the volition already mentioned at the conclusion of the exertion is "being." This is the meaning to be understood.

"A fivefold effect now": this is precisely what is stated in the canonical text, ending with consciousness through feeling. As it is said: "here, the rebirth-linking is consciousness, the descent is name-and-form, the sensitivity is the sense base, the touched is contact, the felt is feeling — these five states, in this rebirth-being here, are conditions for the kamma performed before." Herein, "the rebirth-linking is consciousness": that consciousness which, on account of having arisen by way of linking on to another state of being, is called "rebirth-linking" — that is consciousness. "The descent is name-and-form": that descent of material and formless states into the womb, as though having come and entered — this is name-and-form. "The sensitivity is the sense base": this is said by way of the fivefold sense base — the eye and the rest. "The touched is contact": that which arises touching, having touched an object — this is contact. "The felt is feeling": whatever resultant feeling arises together with the rebirth-linking consciousness, or together with contact conditioned by the sixfold base — that is feeling. This is the meaning to be understood.

"Five causes now": craving and the rest that have come down in the canonical text are craving, clinging, and being. But once being is taken, the formations preceding it, or associated with it, are thereby also taken. And by taking craving and clinging, their associated states are taken; and that ignorance by which, deluded, one performs kamma, is thereby also taken. Thus, five. Hence it is said: "here, on account of the maturity of the sense bases, the delusion is ignorance, the exertion is the formations, the longing is craving, the approach is clinging, the volition is being — these five states, in this present kamma-being, are conditions for rebirth-linking in the future." Herein, "here, on account of the maturity of the sense bases" shows the delusion present at the time of performing kamma for one whose sense bases have matured. The rest is plain in meaning.

"A fivefold effect in the future": consciousness and the other four states already described. These are expressed by taking "birth" as their collective name. Aging-and-death is simply the aging-and-death of those same states. Hence it is said: "in the future, the rebirth-linking is consciousness, the descent is name-and-form, the sensitivity is the sense base, the touched is contact, the felt is feeling — these five states, in a future rebirth-being, are conditions for the kamma performed here." Thus this wheel has twenty modes as spokes.

"It revolves without remaining fixed, with its three rounds": herein, formations and being are the round of kamma; ignorance, craving, and clinging are the round of defilement; consciousness, name-and-form, the sixfold base, contact, and feeling are the round of result. By these three rounds, this wheel of becoming has three rounds; and, for as long as the round of defilement is not cut off, on account of its conditions remaining uninterrupted, it does not remain fixed, but simply keeps revolving, turning again and again. This should be understood.

This wheel, revolving in this way — "by its arising from the truths, by function, by warding off wrong views, by similes, and by the divisions of its profound method — should be understood, as appropriate."

Herein, since it is said in the Analysis of the Truths that wholesome and unwholesome kamma, without distinction, is the truth of origin — therefore, in "dependent on ignorance are formations," the formations, arising from ignorance, are the second truth arising from the second truth. Consciousness, arising from the formations, is the first truth arising from the second truth. Name-and-form and the rest, ending with resultant feeling, arising from consciousness and the rest, are the first truth arising from the first truth. Craving, arising from feeling, is the second truth arising from the first truth. Clinging, arising from craving, is the second truth arising from the second truth. Being, arising from clinging, is both the first and second truths arising from the second truth. Birth, arising from being, is the first truth arising from the second truth. Aging-and-death, arising from birth, is the first truth arising from the first truth. Thus, so far, this should be understood, as appropriate, by way of its arising from the truths.

Herein, since ignorance both bewilders beings with respect to their objects and is a condition for the appearance of the formations; and, likewise, the formations both fashion the conditioned and are a condition for consciousness; and consciousness, too, both cognizes its object and is a condition for name-and-form; and name-and-form, too, both mutually supports its own components and is a condition for the sixfold base; and the sixfold base, too, both occurs in its own respective domain and is a condition for contact; and contact, too, both touches its object and is a condition for feeling; and feeling, too, both experiences the flavor of its object and is a condition for craving; and craving, too, both delights in enticing things and is a condition for clinging; and clinging, too, both grasps at things to be grasped and is a condition for being; and being, too, both scatters beings among the various destinations and is a condition for birth; and birth, too, both generates the aggregates, on account of occurring by way of their production, and is a condition for aging-and-death; and aging-and-death, too, both presides over the breaking up and ripening of the aggregates and is a condition for the appearance of another state of being, on account of presiding over sorrow and the rest — therefore, in every one of these terms, this too should be understood, as appropriate, by way of its twofold function.

And since, herein, "dependent on ignorance are formations" wards off the view of a fixed agent; "dependent on formations, consciousness" wards off the view of a self transmigrating; "dependent on consciousness, name-and-form" wards off the perception of compactness, by showing the diversity of things imagined as "self"; and such statements as "dependent on name-and-form, the sixfold base" and the rest ward off such views as "a self sees … cognizes, touches, feels, thirsts, clings, comes to be, is born, ages, dies" — therefore this wheel of becoming, too, should be understood, as appropriate, by way of its warding off of wrong views.

And since, herein, ignorance, on account of not seeing states by way of their specific and general characteristics, is like a blind man. "Dependent on ignorance are formations" is like the blind man's stumbling. "Dependent on formations, consciousness" is like the falling of one who has stumbled. "Dependent on consciousness, name-and-form" is like the appearance of a boil on one who has fallen. "Dependent on name-and-form, the sixfold base" is like the bursting of the boil into a sore. "Dependent on the sixfold base, contact" is like the rubbing of the boil's sore. "Dependent on contact, feeling" is like the pain of that rubbing; "dependent on feeling, craving" is like the desire for a remedy for that pain. "Dependent on craving, clinging" is like the taking of an unsuitable remedy out of that desire for a remedy. "Dependent on clinging, being" is like the application, once taken up, of that unsuitable remedy. "Dependent on being, birth" is like the appearance of an aggravation of the sore through that unsuitable application. "Dependent on birth, aging-and-death" is like the bursting of the sore through its aggravation.

Or again, since, herein, ignorance, by way of non-application and wrong application, overpowers beings just as a film overpowers the eyes; and the fool, overpowered by it, wraps himself up with the formations that lead to renewed being, just as a cocoon-spinning caterpillar wraps itself with strands of its own cocoon; consciousness, taken hold of by the formations, gains a footing among the destinations, just as a young prince, taken in hand by a chief minister, gains a footing in the kingdom; consciousness, by imagining a sign of rebirth, produces at rebirth-linking a manifold name-and-form, just as a magician produces a magic trick; the sixfold base, established in name-and-form, attains growth, increase, and expansion, just as a thicket of forest growth, established in fertile soil, attains growth; contact is born from the impinging of the bases upon their objects, just as fire is born from the vigorous rubbing together of fire-sticks; feeling appears in one touched by contact, just as burning appears in one touched by fire; craving increases in one who feels, just as thirst increases in one who drinks salt water; one thirsting forms a longing for states of being, just as one made thirsty longs for water; that becomes clinging; by clinging, one clings to being, just as a fish, out of greed for the bait, clings to the hook; when being exists, birth comes to be, just as, when a seed exists, a sprout comes to be; for one who is born, aging-and-death is inevitable, just as the falling of a tree that has grown up is inevitable. Therefore, this wheel of becoming, too, should be understood, as appropriate, by way of these similes.

And since it was said by the Blessed One, with reference to its profundity by way of meaning, by way of its nature as cause, by way of teaching, and by way of penetration: "profound, Ānanda, is this dependent origination, and profound is its appearance" — therefore this wheel of becoming, too, should be understood, as appropriate, by way of the divisions of its profundity.

Herein: since it is not the case that aging-and-death does not occur in dependence on birth; nor does it occur, apart from birth, from anything else; and yet it does arise in just this way, from birth — the sense in which aging-and-death arises and comes about through the condition of birth, being difficult to understand, is profound in this way. Likewise, the sense in which birth arises through the condition of being … and so on down to the sense in which the formations arise and come about through the condition of ignorance is profound. Therefore this wheel of becoming is "profound in meaning" — this, so far, is its profundity of meaning. For "meaning" is said to be cause and effect together. As it is said: "knowledge with respect to cause and effect is the discrimination of meaning."

And since the manner in which, and the state in which, ignorance is a condition for this or that formation is difficult to understand, the sense in which ignorance is a condition for the formations is profound. Likewise, the sense in which the formations … and so on down to the sense in which birth is a condition for aging-and-death is profound. Therefore this wheel of becoming is "profound in its nature as cause" — this, herein, is its profundity of nature. For "dhamma" is a name for a cause. As it is said: "knowledge with respect to a cause is the discrimination of the underlying condition."

And since this teaching must be presented in this or that way, for this or that reason, the teaching of it, too, is profound — no knowledge other than omniscient knowledge can find a footing there. For, accordingly, it is taught, in one discourse, in forward order; in another, in reverse order; in another, both forward and reverse; in another, starting from the middle, either forward or in reverse; in one place with three connections and four sections; in another with two connections and three sections; in another with one connection and two sections. Therefore this wheel of becoming is "profound in its teaching" — this is its profundity of teaching.

And since, herein, that intrinsic nature of ignorance and the rest, by penetrating which ignorance and the rest are rightly penetrated according to their true characteristic, is profound on account of being hard to fathom — therefore this wheel of becoming is "profound in penetration." For, herein: the sense of ignorance's non-penetration of the truths through unknowing and non-seeing is profound; the sense of the formations' fashioning, exerting, taking-fire, and fading is profound; the sense of consciousness's voidness, non-involvement, non-transmigration, and appearance at rebirth-linking is profound; the sense of name-and-form's arising together, its separability-yet-inseparability, its bending toward its object, and its deformability is profound; the sense of the sixfold base's dominance, its being a world, a door, a field, and an object-possessor is profound; the sense of contact's touching, impinging, and coincidence-of-conditions is profound; the sense of feeling's experiencing the flavor of an object, its pleasure, pain, and neutrality, and its being felt yet lifeless is profound. The sense of craving's being delighted in and clung to, its being like a creeper, a river, an ocean hard to fill, is profound; the sense of clinging's taking up, grasping, adherence, and misapprehension hard to overcome is profound; the sense of being's exertion, fashioning, its being flung into a womb, a destination, a station, and an abode is profound; the sense of birth's being a birth, a coming-to-birth, a descent, a production, and an appearance is profound; the sense of aging-and-death's destruction, decay, breaking up, and alteration is profound — this, herein, is its profundity of penetration.

And since, herein, there are four methods of meaning — the method of unity, the method of diversity, the method of non-involvement, and the method of "thus is its nature" — therefore this wheel of becoming, too, should be understood, as appropriate, by way of the divisions of method.

Herein, "dependent on ignorance are formations; dependent on formations, consciousness," and so on — the uninterrupted continuity, like a seed's progression through sprout-hood and so forth to become a tree, is called "the method of unity." One who sees this rightly abandons the annihilationist view, through understanding the uninterrupted continuity by way of the connection of cause and effect. One who sees it wrongly takes up the eternalist view, by grasping as a strict unity this uninterrupted continuity that occurs by way of the connection of cause and effect.

But the determination of ignorance and the rest according to their own respective characteristics is called "the method of diversity." One who sees this rightly abandons the eternalist view, through seeing the ever-new arising of each factor. One who sees it wrongly takes up the annihilationist view, by grasping as strict diversity — as though belonging to entirely separate continuities — what has, in fact, fallen within a single continuity.

The absence of any such involvement as "I must produce the formations from ignorance" or "we must produce consciousness from the formations" is called "the method of non-involvement." One who sees this rightly abandons the view of a self, through understanding the absence of any agent. One who sees it wrongly takes up the view of non-efficacy of action, by failing to grasp that, even in the absence of any personal involvement, ignorance and the rest still have a causal role established by the fixed nature of things themselves.

But the fact that it is specifically the formations and the rest that arise from causes such as ignorance — just as it is specifically curds and the like that arise from milk and the like — and not anything else, is called "the method of 'thus is its nature.'" One who sees this rightly abandons both the view of no cause and the view of non-efficacy of action, through understanding that the effect corresponds to its condition. One who sees it wrongly, failing to grasp that the occurrence of an effect corresponds to its condition, takes up both the view of no cause and the doctrine of strict determinism, by grasping that anything whatsoever can arise from anything at all, indiscriminately.

For this is unfathomable, on account of being exceedingly profound; hard to cross, on account of the denseness of its manifold methods. With the sword of knowledge, thoroughly sharpened on the excellent stone of concentration — "having split apart this wheel of becoming, ever grinding on like a thunderbolt's own wheel — no one at all, even in a dream, has gone beyond the fear of saṃsāra without doing so."

For this was said by the Blessed One: "profound, Ānanda, is this dependent origination, and profound is its appearance. And it is through not awakening to, and not penetrating, this Dhamma, Ānanda, that this generation has become like a tangled skein, like a knotted ball of thread, like matted rushes and reeds, unable to pass beyond states of misery, bad destinations, ruin, and the round of rebirth." Therefore, one practicing for one's own welfare and happiness, or for that of others, having set aside all other tasks — "let the wise person here, ever mindful, constantly apply himself to this profound array of the mode of conditions, that he may find a footing therein."

Thus, in the Path of Purification, composed for the joy of good people,
in the section on the development of wisdom,
the discussion called "The Description of the Ground of Wisdom"
constitutes the seventeenth chapter.