Nutriment and the Elements

Now, next after the immaterial states, the development of the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment — set out as "one perception" — has been reached in its turn. Herein, "that which carries" is called "nutriment." It is fourfold: physical food, contact, mental volition, and consciousness.

What, then, does each of these carry? Physical food carries nutritive essence, at the eighth remove, as a kind of matter. Contact carries the three kinds of feeling. Mental volition carries rebirth-linking into the three kinds of existence. Consciousness carries mentality-materiality at the moment of rebirth-linking.

Among these, physical food carries the danger of attachment. Contact carries the danger of approach. Mental volition carries the danger of rebirth. Consciousness carries the danger of rebirth-linking. These, being thus fraught with danger, should be illustrated: physical food, by the simile of a child's flesh (S.N. 2.63); contact, by the simile of a hideless cow (S.N. 2.63); mental volition, by the simile of a pit of coals (S.N. 2.63); and consciousness, by the simile of a hundred spears (S.N. 2.63). But among these four kinds of nutriment, it is specifically the physical food, distinguished as what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted, that is intended here by the word "nutriment." The perception that arises by grasping the repulsive aspect of that nutriment is "the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment."

One wishing to develop that perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, having learned the meditation subject without missing even a single word of the instruction, should, alone in seclusion, reflect on the repulsiveness of physical food — distinguished as what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted — by ten specific angles: namely, by way of going for it, by way of seeking it, by way of using it, by way of its resting-place, by way of its storage, by way of its being not yet digested, by way of its being digested, by way of its fruit, by way of its outflow, and by way of its smearing.

Herein, "by way of going": one who has gone forth into a teaching of such great power should, after spending the whole night either reciting the Buddha's word or practicing the ascetic's duties, rise early, perform the duty at the shrine-terrace and the Bodhi-tree terrace, set out drinking water and water for washing, sweep the lodging, attend to his body, and, sitting down, attend to the meditation subject for the time it takes to recite twenty or thirty verses; then, rising, taking bowl and robe, he must leave behind those secluded, cramped, blissfully solitary, shade-and-water-provided, clean, cool, delightful forest groves, and, setting aside all regard for the noble delight in seclusion, go toward the village for the sake of food, facing it the way a jackal faces a charnel ground.

And one going in this way, from the very moment of stepping down from his bed or bench, must tread upon a floor-covering strewn with foot-dust, house-lizards' droppings, and the like. Then, on occasion, he must see an entrance-hall even more repulsive than the inner chamber, spoiled by the droppings of rats and geckos. Then a lower floor even more repulsive than the upper, smeared with the droppings of owls and pigeons. Then, at times, a lodging-ground even more repulsive than the lower floor, soiled by old grass and leaves scattered by the wind, by the urine, feces, saliva, and mucus of sick novices, and, in the rainy season, by mud and standing water. The monastery road is to be seen as more repulsive still than the lodging-ground.

Then, having in due course venerated the Bodhi tree and the shrine, and having stood at the pavilion for walking meditation to look back once more at that shrine like a heap of pearls, that Bodhi tree charming as a peacock's spread tail, and that lodging as glorious as a heavenly mansion, thinking, "I shall be leaving so delightful a place behind me for the sake of food" — having then set out and taken the road to the village, he must see a path strewn with stumps and thorns, or made uneven and broken by the force of rainwater.

Then, having put on his lower robe as though bandaging a wound, tied his waistband as though binding a strip of cloth over a wound, put on his outer robe as though covering over a skeleton, and taken out his bowl as though taking out a medicine-bowl, on reaching the vicinity of the village gate, he must see the carcasses of elephants, horses, cattle, buffaloes, humans, snakes, and dogs. And not only must he see them — he must also endure their smell as it assaults his nose. Then, standing at the village gate, he must scan the village streets to avoid the danger of fierce elephants, horses, and the like.

Thus, all this — from the floor-covering to the many carcasses at the end — is repulsive, and must, for the sake of food, be trodden upon, seen, and smelled. "Ah, how repulsive indeed is this thing called food!" — thus should the repulsiveness by way of going be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of seeking"? Having thus endured the repulsiveness of the going, and entered the village, wrapped in his outer robe like a pauper, bowl in hand, he must walk the village streets from house to house in order. There, in the rainy season, wherever he steps, his feet sink into the mud up to the very flesh of the calf; with one hand he must hold his bowl, with the other he must lift up his robe. In the hot season, he must walk with his body covered by dust and chaff whirled up by gusts of wind. Coming to each house door, he must see, and even tread upon, cesspools and filth-heaps mixed with fish-washings, meat-washings, rice-washings, spittle, mucus, dog- and pig-droppings, teeming with worms and swarming with blue flies — flies which then rise up and settle even on his outer robe, his bowl, and his head.

Even having entered a house, some give and some do not give. Of those who give, some give yesterday's cooked rice, or stale snacks, or rotten porridge-cakes and the like. Of those who do not give, some say, "please pass on, venerable sir," while others, as though not seeing him, remain silent; some turn their face aside; and some address him with harsh words such as, "go away, you shaven-head!" In this way, like a pauper, he must walk for alms through the village and then depart.

Thus, all this — from entering the village to leaving it — the repulsiveness of mud and the rest must, for the sake of food, be trodden upon, seen, and endured. "Ah, how repulsive indeed is this thing called food!" — thus should the repulsiveness by way of seeking be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of using it"? Having sought food in this way, sitting comfortably in a convenient spot outside the village, until he actually lowers his hand into it, it is still possible to invite such a person — a monk of standing, or a person of decent conscience — to share it. But once his hand has actually gone in, wishing to eat, if someone should then say "please take some," he ought to feel ashamed. And as he kneads it with his lowered hand, sweat oozing along the lines of his five fingers moistens and softens even food that was dry and hard.

Then, when a mouthful, its former appearance already spoiled by this mere kneading, is placed in the mouth, the lower teeth perform the function of a mortar, the upper teeth the function of a pestle, and the tongue the function of a hand. There, pounded by the teeth-pestle like a dog's portion in a dog's trough, and turned over by the tongue, it is smeared, at the tip of the tongue, with thin, clear saliva, and, from the middle onward, with thick saliva, and, in places the tooth-stick never reached, with the film that coats the teeth. Thus pulverized and smeared, its distinct color, smell, and character vanishing on the very instant, it comes to a state of utter disgust comparable to a dog's vomit lying in a dog's trough — and yet, precisely because it has now passed out of the range of sight, it must still be swallowed. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of using it be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its resting-place"? This food, having thus come to be used, and entering within, goes to rest, without exception — even for Buddhas, for Paccekabuddhas, and for a wheel-turning king — in one or another of these four reservoirs: bile, phlegm, pus, or blood. But for people of little merit, all four reservoirs are present at once. Therefore, for one in whom the bile-reservoir predominates, it becomes utterly disgusting, as though smeared with thick, honey-colored oil; for one in whom the phlegm-reservoir predominates, as though smeared with the sap of the nāgabala creeper; for one in whom the pus-reservoir predominates, as though smeared with rotten buttermilk; and for one in whom the blood-reservoir predominates, it becomes utterly disgusting as though smeared with dye. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its resting-place be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its storage"? This food, smeared by whichever of these four reservoirs, having entered within the belly, comes to rest neither in a golden vessel, nor in a vessel of jewels, silver, or the like. If it is swallowed by one who is ten years old, it comes to rest in a place resembling an unwashed latrine pit ten years old. If it is swallowed by one who is twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, or ninety years old, or if it is swallowed by one who is a hundred years old, it comes to rest in a place resembling an unwashed latrine pit a hundred years old. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its storage be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its being not yet digested"? This food, having come to be stored in such a place as described, for as long as it remains undigested, remains in that very same utterly dark, foul, and disgusting spot, pervaded by the air of many different kinds of corpses — just as, in the hot season, when an unseasonal rain has fallen, grass, leaves, torn matting, and the carcasses of snakes, dogs, and humans that have fallen into a pit at an outcaste village's gate lie heated by the sun, covered over with froth and bubbles, just so, all that has been swallowed on that day, the day before, and the day before that, having become one single mass, wrapped in a layer of phlegm, covered with froth and bubbles produced by the seething, boiling heat of the body's own fire, comes to a state of utter disgust and remains there. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its being not yet digested be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its being digested"? This food, digested by that bodily fire, does not, like the elements of gold, silver, and the rest, come to a state of gold, silver, or the like. Rather, releasing its froth and bubbles, and, like fine yellow clay ground on a smooth grinding-stone and placed in a bamboo tube, coming to the state of feces, it fills the rectum; and coming to the state of urine, it fills the bladder. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its being digested be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its fruit"? When it is properly digested, this food produces the various parts of the body such as hair, body-hair, nails, teeth, and the rest; when it is not properly digested, it produces any of a hundred diseases such as ringworm, itch, scabies, leprosy, white leprosy, consumption, coughing, and dysentery — this is its fruit. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its fruit be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its outflow"? This food, being swallowed, enters by one door, but, in flowing out, flows out by many doors — as eye-discharge from the eyes, ear-wax from the ears, and so on. At the time of swallowing, it is swallowed with a great retinue of pleasure; but at the time of flowing out, having become excrement, urine, and the like, it is carried out by one person alone. And on the first day, one enjoying it is joyful, elated, filled with delight and gladness; but on the second day, discharging it, one holds one's nose, grimaces, and becomes disgusted and ashamed. On the first day, one swallows it infatuated, greedy, attached, even intoxicated with it; but by the second day, after only a single night's lodging within, one becomes disenchanted with it and carries it out afflicted, ashamed, and disgusted. On this the ancient teachers said —

"Food, drink, what is chewed, and costly fare — entering by one door, it flows out by nine.
"Food, drink, what is chewed, and costly fare — one eats it with a whole retinue, but carrying it out, one hides away.
"Food, drink, what is chewed, and costly fare — one eats it with delight, but carrying it out, one is disgusted.
"Food, drink, what is chewed, and costly fare — after a single night's lodging, all of it becomes foul."

Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its outflow be reflected upon.

How is it "by way of its smearing"? Even at the time of using it, it smears the hands, lips, tongue, and palate. Smeared by it, these become repulsive, such that, even after washing, they must be washed again and again to remove the smell. Just as, when rice is being cooked, husks, bran, and the like rise up and smear the rim and lid of the pot, so too, this food, cooked and made to rise up as froth by the body's fire pervading the whole body, smears the teeth with dental plaque; smears the tongue, palate, and the rest with saliva and phlegm; and smears the region of the eyes, ears, nose, and lower passages with eye-discharge, ear-wax, mucus, urine, feces, and the like. Smeared by this, these openings, even when washed every single day, are never clean, never pleasant. Some of them, once washed, must be washed again with water; some, even after being washed two or three times with cow-dung, clay, or scented powder, only then lose their offensiveness. Thus should the repulsiveness by way of its smearing be reflected upon.

For one who, striking at it and considering it, reflects in this way on the repulsiveness by these ten angles, physical food becomes evident by way of its repulsive aspect. He repeatedly cultivates, develops, and makes much of that sign. As he does so, the hindrances are suppressed. Because physical food's own inherent nature is profound, the mind becomes concentrated by access concentration alone, without reaching absorption. And here, perception becomes evident by way of grasping the repulsive aspect. Therefore this meditation subject goes by the name "the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment," precisely.

And in a monk devoted to this perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, the mind shrinks back from, curls away from, and turns back from craving for taste. Like one seeking to cross a wilderness, free of intoxication, he partakes of food only for the sake of crossing over suffering — comparable to eating a child's flesh. Then, with little difficulty, by way of the full understanding of physical food, lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure comes to full understanding in him. By way of the full understanding of the five cords of sensual pleasure, he fully understands the aggregate of form. And, by virtue of the repulsiveness inherent in food not yet digested and the rest, his development of mindfulness of the body also comes to fulfillment, and he has entered upon the path in conformity with the perception of foulness. And one who, relying on this practice, is unable to achieve the culmination in deathlessness in this very life, is bound for a good destination.

This is the detailed treatment of the development of the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment.

Now, next after the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment, the development of the determining of the four elements — set out as "one determining" — has been reached in its turn. Herein, "determining" is a settling by way of the observation of intrinsic nature; the determining of the four elements is called "the determining of the four elements." Attention to the elements, the meditation subject of the elements, and the determining of the four elements are, in meaning, one and the same. This has come down to us in two forms: in brief, and in detail. In brief, it has come down in the Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness. In detail, it has come down in the Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint, in the Advice to Rāhula, and in the Exposition of the Elements. For thus it is said —

"Suppose, monks, a skilled butcher, or a butcher's apprentice, having slaughtered a cow, were to sit at a crossroads, having divided it up into portions — just so, monks, a monk reviews this very body, however it is established, however it is disposed, by way of elements: 'in this body there is the earth element, the water element, the fire element, the wind element.'"

Thus, for one of sharp wisdom practicing the elements meditation subject, it has come down in brief in the Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness (D.N. 2.378).

Its meaning is this: just as a skillful butcher, or his hired apprentice, fed and paid by him, having slaughtered a cow and cut it through, were to sit having divided it into portions at a crossroads — that is, at the point where the roads going in the four directions meet — just so a monk, by virtue of the body being established in whatever way among the four postures, reviews it "as it is established." And precisely because it is thus established, it is also "as it is disposed" — he reviews the body thus: "in this body there is the earth element … the wind element" — thus he reviews it by way of elements.

What is meant by this? Just as, for the butcher, while he is raising the cow, while he is bringing it to slaughter, while, having brought it, he ties it up and keeps it there, while he is killing it, and even while he sees it slaughtered and dead — the perception "a cow" does not disappear from him for as long as that, but only once he has cut it up and divided it into portions. But for one who, having divided it, sits with it in portions, the perception "a cow" disappears, and the perception "meat" arises. It does not occur to him, "I am selling a cow, these people are carrying off a cow"; rather, it occurs to him only, "I am selling meat, these people too are carrying off meat." Just so, for this monk too, previously, in the time of being a foolish ordinary person — whether as a layman or as one who has gone forth — the perception "a being," or "a person," or "an individual" does not disappear from him for so long as that, but only once he reviews this very body, however it is established, however it is disposed, by way of elements, having broken it down out of its compactness. But for one reviewing it by way of elements, the perception "a being" disappears, and the mind becomes established simply by way of elements. For this reason the Blessed One said, "Suppose, monks, a skillful butcher … were to sit — just so, monks, a monk … the wind element."

But in the Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint (M.N. 1.300 and following) it is said: "And what, friend, is the internal earth element? Whatever, internally, belonging to oneself, is hard, solid, and clung to — that is: hair, body-hair … stomach-contents, feces — or whatever else, internally, belonging to oneself, is hard, solid, and clung to: this, friend, is called the internal earth element."

"And what, friend, is the internal water element? Whatever, internally, belonging to oneself, is water or watery, and clung to — that is: bile … urine — or whatever else, internally, belonging to oneself, is water or watery, and clung to: this, friend, is called the internal water element."

"And what, friend, is the internal fire element? Whatever, internally, belonging to oneself, is fire or fiery, and clung to — that is: that by which one is warmed, that by which one ages, that by which one is consumed, that by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested — or whatever else, internally, belonging to oneself, is fire or fiery, and clung to: this, friend, is called the internal fire element."

"And what, friend, is the internal wind element? Whatever, internally, belonging to oneself, is wind or windy, and clung to — that is: upward-going winds, downward-going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels, winds that course through the limbs, in-breathing and out-breathing — or whatever else, internally, belonging to oneself, is wind or windy, and clung to: this, friend, is called the internal wind element."

Thus, for one not of the very sharpest wisdom practicing the elements meditation subject, it has come down in detail. And just as here, so too in the Advice to Rāhula and in the Exposition of the Elements.

Herein, this is the explanation of the words not immediately clear. "Internally, belonging to oneself": both these terms, first of all, are designations for what is one's own. "One's own" means: born within oneself, included within one's own continuity — this is the meaning. And just as, in ordinary usage, talk about women is called "concerning women," so too, because it occurs within oneself, it is called "internal," and because it occurs specifically in dependence on oneself, it is also called "belonging to oneself." "Hard" means stiff. "Solid" means rough. Herein, the first is a statement of characteristic, the second a statement of mode — for the earth element has the characteristic of hardness, and it has a rough mode; therefore it is called "solid." "Clung to" means firmly grasped — grasped firmly in the sense of "I" and "mine," seized and adhered to; this is the meaning. "That is" is a mere particle; its meaning is, "what is that?" Then, in order to show that, it is said, "hair, body-hair," and so on. And here it should be understood that the earth element is specified by twenty aspects, including the brain among them. By the phrase "or whatever else," the earth element is also included among the remaining three categories.

By virtue of flowing, it moves to this or that place — thus it is "water." Having gone, by way of arising from kamma and the rest, into various kinds of water — thus it is "watery." What is that? The characteristic of the water element is cohesion.

By virtue of heating, it is "fire"; by the method already stated, having gone into various fires, it is "fiery." What is that? The characteristic of heat. "That by which": that by which, this fire element having become disturbed, this body is warmed, becoming feverish through such conditions as a one-day fever and the like. "That by which one ages": that by which this body ages, reaching a deterioration of the faculties, an exhaustion of strength, and such conditions as wrinkles and grey hair. "That by which one is consumed": that by which, this element having become disturbed, this body is consumed with burning. And that person, crying out, "I am burning, I am burning!", longs for an application of a hundred-times-clarified ghee, of sandalwood, and the like, and for the wind of a palm-leaf fan. "That by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested": that by which what is eaten — such as boiled rice — or drunk — such as a beverage — or chewed — such as flour-cakes — or tasted — such as ripe mango or molasses — is properly digested, that is, resolved into taste and the rest; this is the meaning. And here, the first three arise from the fire element itself; the last arises from kamma alone.

By virtue of blowing, it is "wind"; by the method already stated, having gone into various winds, it is "windy." What is that? The characteristic of distension. "Upward-going winds": winds that ascend upward, producing belching, hiccupping, and the like. "Downward-going winds": winds that descend downward, expelling feces, urine, and the like. "Winds in the belly": winds outside the intestines. "Winds in the bowels": winds inside the intestines. "Winds that course through the limbs": winds spread throughout the whole body along the network of channels, coursing through the limbs, producing bending, stretching, and the like. "In-breathing": the wind of breath entering by way of the nose. "Out-breathing": the wind of breath leaving by way of the nose. And here, the first five arise from all four origins; in-breathing and out-breathing arise from mind alone. Everywhere, by the phrase "or whatever else," the water element and the rest are also included among the remaining categories.

Thus, the earth element by twenty aspects, the water element by twelve, the fire element by four, and the wind element by six — the four elements have been detailed by forty-two aspects in all. This, then, is the explanation of the canonical text so far.

In the method of development here: for a monk of sharp wisdom, grasping the elements in detail — "hair is the earth element, body-hair is the earth element," and so on — would appear tediously drawn out. For him, attending thus — "whatever has the characteristic of hardness, this is the earth element; whatever has the characteristic of cohesion, this is the water element; whatever has the characteristic of heat, this is the fire element; whatever has the characteristic of distension, this is the wind element" — the meditation subject becomes evident. But for one not of the sharpest wisdom, attending in this concise way leaves things dark and unclear; for him, attending in the earlier, detailed way, it becomes evident.

How so? Just as, when two monks are reciting together a text with much repeated material, the monk of sharp wisdom, having spelled out the repeated passage in full once or twice, thereafter goes on reciting using only the opening and closing words as markers. There, the one not of the sharpest wisdom says to him, "why does this recitation not even let you so much as move your lips properly? Reciting like this, when will the text ever become well mastered?" — and he himself recites by spelling out the repeated passage in full every single time it comes up. To him, the other says, "why does this recitation not even let you reach the end? Reciting like this, when will the text ever reach its conclusion?" Just so, for one of sharp wisdom, grasping the elements in detail by way of hair and the rest would appear tediously drawn out; for him, attending concisely by the method, "whatever has the characteristic of hardness, this is the earth element," and so on, the meditation subject becomes evident. For the other, attending in that same concise way leaves things dark and unclear; for him, attending in detail by way of hair and the rest, it becomes evident.

Therefore, one of sharp wisdom wishing to develop this meditation subject should, first, alone in seclusion, having brought to mind his entire physical body, reflect: "whatever in this body is a state of stiffness or of roughness — this is the earth element; whatever is a state of cohesion or of fluidity — this is the water element; whatever is a state of ripening or of heat — this is the fire element; whatever is a state of distension or of movement — this is the wind element." Having thus grasped the elements concisely, he should again and again advert to, attend to, and review them, as mere elements, without a being, without a living entity — "earth element, water element," and so on. For one striving in this way, before long, a concentration merely of access, not reaching absorption, arises, gripped by the wisdom that illuminates the distinction of the elements, because its object is a mere intrinsic-nature phenomenon.

Or alternatively: these four categories were stated by the General of the Dhamma, in order to show that the four great elements lack any living being, thus: "in dependence on bone, in dependence on sinew, in dependence on flesh, in dependence on skin, space thus enclosed simply comes to be reckoned as 'form'" (M.N. 1.306). Having, with the hand of knowledge, repeatedly separated out along each interval between these four categories, whatever among them is a state of stiffness or roughness — "this is the earth element" — having thus grasped the elements by the same method as before, one should again and again advert to, attend to, and review them, as mere elements, without a being, without a living entity — "earth element, water element," and so on. For one striving in this way, before long, a concentration merely of access, not reaching absorption, arises, gripped by the wisdom that illuminates the distinction of the elements, because its object is a mere intrinsic-nature phenomenon. This is the method of development in the concise version of the determining of the four elements.

But the detailed version should be understood as follows. A yogi not of the sharpest wisdom wishing to develop this meditation subject should, having learned the elements in detail by way of the forty-two aspects in the presence of a teacher, and, dwelling in a lodging of the kind already described, having completed all his duties, alone in seclusion, develop the meditation subject by these four methods: by way of concise treatment together with the constituents, by way of detailed treatment of the constituents, by way of concise treatment of the characteristics, and by way of detailed treatment of the characteristics.

Herein, how does one develop it by way of concise treatment together with the constituents? Here a monk determines, among the twenty constituents, the state of stiffness as the earth element. Among the twelve constituents, he determines the state of cohesion, reckoned as a fluid substance, as the water element. Among the four constituents, he determines the ripening fire as the fire element. Among the six constituents, he determines the state of distension as the wind element. For one determining them in just this way, the elements become evident. For one who repeatedly adverts to and attends to them, access concentration arises by the very method already stated.

But for one developing it in this way, if the meditation subject does not succeed, he should develop it by way of detailed treatment of the constituents. How? By that monk taking up what was stated, in the exposition of the meditation subject of mindfulness of the body, as the sevenfold skill in learning and the tenfold skill in attention. First of all, without omitting any of that entire method with regard to the thirty-two aspects, having begun with the verbal recitation of the "skin pentad" and the rest, forward and backward, all the procedure stated there should be carried out. This alone is the distinctive difference: there, having attended to hair and the rest by way of color, shape, direction, location, and delimitation, the mind was to be established by way of repulsiveness; here, it is to be established by way of the elements. Therefore, having attended to hair and the rest, five by five, by way of color and the rest, at the end, attention should proceed in this way.

This thing called hair grows on the skin enveloping the dome of the skull. Herein, just as the coarse grass growing atop an anthill does not know, "coarse grass has grown on me" — for the anthill's summit does not know this — nor does the coarse grass know, "we have grown atop an anthill's summit" — just so, the skin enveloping the dome of the skull does not know, "hair has grown on me," nor does the hair know, "we have grown on the skin enveloping the dome of the skull." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus this thing called hair is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Body-hair grows on the skin enveloping the body. Herein, just as coarse grass growing on abandoned village-ground does not know, "coarse grass has grown on me" — for the abandoned village-ground does not know this — nor does the coarse grass know, "we have grown on abandoned village-ground" — just so, the skin enveloping the body does not know, "body-hair has grown on me." Nor does the body-hair know, "we have grown on the skin enveloping the body." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus this thing called body-hair is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Nails grow at the tips of the fingers. Herein, just as, when boys play by piercing madhuka fruit-stones with little sticks, the sticks do not know, "madhuka fruit-stones have been placed upon us," nor do the madhuka fruit-stones know, "we have been placed upon sticks" — just so, the fingers do not know, "nails have grown at our tips." Nor do the nails know, "we have grown at the tips of the fingers." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus nails are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Teeth grow in the jawbones. Herein, just as, in pillars set up by carpenters, bound with a certain kind of resin onto stone mortars, the mortars do not know, "pillars stand upon us." Nor do the pillars know, "we stand upon mortars" — just so, the jawbones do not know, "teeth have grown upon us." Nor do the teeth know, "we have grown upon the jawbones." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus teeth are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Skin stands enveloping the entire body. Herein, just as a great lute enveloped in a wet cowhide does not know, "I am enveloped by wet cowhide" — nor does the wet cowhide know, "the great lute is enveloped by me" — just so, the body does not know, "I am enveloped by skin." Nor does the skin know, "the body is enveloped by me." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus skin is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Flesh stands smeared over the framework of bones. Herein, just as a wall plastered with a great quantity of clay does not know, "I am plastered with a great quantity of clay" — nor does the great quantity of clay know, "the wall is plastered by me" — just so, the framework of bones does not know, "I am smeared with flesh divided into some nine hundred pieces." Nor does the flesh know, "the framework of bones is smeared by me." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus flesh is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Sinew stands within the body, binding the bones together. Herein, just as, in timbers of a wall bound together with creepers, the timbers do not know, "we are bound together by creepers" — nor do the creepers know, "the timbers are bound together by us" — just so, the bones do not know, "we are bound together by sinews." Nor do the sinews know, "the bones are bound together by us." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus sinew is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Among the bones: the heel-bone stands supporting the ankle-bone. The ankle-bone stands supporting the shin-bone. The shin-bone stands supporting the thigh-bone. The thigh-bone stands supporting the hip-bone. The hip-bone stands supporting the spine. The spine stands supporting the neck-bone. The neck-bone stands supporting the skull. The skull rests upon the neck-bone. The neck-bone rests upon the spine. The spine rests upon the hip-bone. The hip-bone rests upon the thigh-bone. The thigh-bone rests upon the shin-bone. The shin-bone rests upon the ankle-bone. The ankle-bone rests upon the heel-bone.

Herein, just as, in a stack of bricks, timber, cow-dung cakes, or the like, the lower layers do not know, "the upper layers stand supported upon us," nor do the upper layers know, "we rest upon the lower layers" — just so, the heel-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the ankle-bone." The ankle-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the shin-bone." The shin-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the thigh-bone." The thigh-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the hip-bone." The hip-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the spine." The spine does not know, "I stand supporting the neck-bone." The neck-bone does not know, "I stand supporting the skull." The skull does not know, "I rest upon the neck-bone." The neck-bone does not know, "I rest upon the spine." The spine does not know, "I rest upon the hip-bone." The hip-bone does not know, "I rest upon the thigh-bone." The thigh-bone does not know, "I rest upon the shin-bone." The shin-bone does not know, "I rest upon the ankle-bone." The ankle-bone does not know, "I rest upon the heel-bone." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus bone is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Marrow stands within the various bones. Herein, just as, when cut sections of rattan-tip or the like are placed inside a bamboo joint or the like, the bamboo joint does not know, "rattan-tips have been placed inside me" — nor does the rattan-tip know, "we stand inside the bamboo joint" — just so, the bones do not know, "marrow stands within us." Nor does the marrow know, "I stand within the bones." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus marrow is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The kidney, emerging from the throat-hollow by a single root that runs a short way and then splits in two, stands bound by a thick sinew, encircling the flesh of the heart. Herein, just as, in a pair of mango-fruits bound together upon a single stalk, the stalk does not know, "the pair of mango-fruits is bound upon me" — nor does the pair of mango-fruits know, "I am bound upon the stalk" — just so, the thick sinew does not know, "the kidney is bound upon me." Nor does the kidney know, "I am bound upon the thick sinew." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the kidney is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The heart stands within the body, resting against the middle of the ribcage. Herein, just as a lump of meat placed resting against an old cart's frame does not know, "resting against me is a lump of meat" — for the interior of the old cart's frame does not know this — nor does the lump of meat know, "I rest against the old cart's frame" — just so, the interior of the ribcage does not know, "resting against me stands the heart." Nor does the heart know, "I stand resting against the ribcage." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the heart is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The liver stands within the body, resting against the right side between the two breasts. Herein, just as a pair of meat-lumps stuck to the side of a cooking-pot does not know, "a pair of meat-lumps is stuck to me" — for the side of the cooking-pot does not know this — nor does the pair of meat-lumps know, "I am stuck to the side of the cooking-pot" — just so, the interior right side between the breasts does not know, "resting against me stands the liver." Nor does the liver know, "I stand resting against the right side between the breasts." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the liver is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Among the membranes: the concealed membrane stands enveloping the heart and kidney. The unconcealed membrane stands enveloping the flesh of the entire body, beneath the skin. Herein, just as flesh wrapped in a cloth does not know, "I am wrapped in cloth" — nor does the cloth know, "flesh is wrapped by me" — just so, the kidney, the heart, and the flesh of the entire body do not know, "I am covered by the membrane." Nor does the membrane know, "the kidney, the heart, and the flesh of the entire body are covered by me." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the membrane is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The spleen stands resting against the upper side of the stomach-lining, on the left side of the heart. Herein, just as a lump of cow-dung resting against the upper side of a granary does not know, "a lump of cow-dung rests against me" — for the upper side of the granary does not know this — nor does the lump of cow-dung know, "I rest against the upper side of the granary" — just so, the upper side of the stomach-lining does not know, "the spleen rests against me." Nor does the spleen know, "I rest against the upper side of the stomach-lining." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the spleen is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The lungs stand within the body, between the two breasts, hanging down, covering the heart and liver from above. Herein, just as a bird's nest hanging within an old, decaying storehouse does not know, "resting hanging within me is a bird's nest" — for the interior of the old storehouse does not know this — nor does the bird's nest know, "I stand hanging within the old storehouse" — just so, that interior of the body does not know, "the lungs stand hanging within me." Nor do the lungs know, "I stand hanging within such an interior of the body." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the lungs are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The intestines stand within the body, extending from the throat-hollow to the end of the excretory passage. Herein, just as a headless, folded-over carcass laid down in a trough of blood does not know, "I stand in the trough of blood" — for the trough of blood does not know this — nor does the carcass know, "I stand in the trough of blood" — just so, the interior of the body does not know, "the intestines stand within me." Nor do the intestines know, "I stand within the interior of the body." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the intestines are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The mesentery stands binding together the twenty-one coils of the intestines, between one coil and the next. Herein, just as the cords sewn to form a doormat's ring do not know, "the doormat's ring is sewn together by us" — nor does the doormat's ring know, "I am sewn together by the cords" — just so, the intestines do not know, "the mesentery stands binding us together." Nor does the mesentery know, "I stand binding the intestines together." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the mesentery is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Stomach-contents — what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted — stand in the stomach. Herein, just as a dog's vomit lying in a dog's trough does not know, "I lie in the trough" — for the dog's trough does not know this — nor does the dog's vomit know, "I lie in the dog's trough" — just so, the stomach does not know, "stomach-contents stand within me." Nor do the stomach-contents know, "I stand within the stomach." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus stomach-contents are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Feces stand at the end of the intestines, in what is called the rectum, resembling a length of bamboo eight fingers long. Herein, just as fine yellow clay, ground smooth and packed into a bamboo joint, does not know, "I stand within the bamboo joint" — for the bamboo joint does not know this — nor does the fine yellow clay know, "I stand within the bamboo joint" — just so, the rectum does not know, "feces stand within me." Nor do the feces know, "I stand within the rectum." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus feces are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

The brain stands within the interior of the skull. Herein, just as a lump of dough placed within an old gourd-shell does not know, "I stand within the gourd-shell" — for the gourd-shell does not know this — nor does the lump of dough know, "I stand within the gourd-shell" — just so, the interior of the skull does not know, "the brain stands within me." Nor does the brain know, "I stand within the interior of the skull." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus the brain is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, stiff — the earth element.

Among the bile: unbound bile, connected with the life faculty, stands pervading the entire body. Bound bile stands within the bile-sac. Herein, just as oil standing pervading a cake does not know, "the cake pervades me" — nor does the cake know, "oil stands pervading me" — just so, the body does not know, "unbound bile stands pervading me." Nor does the unbound bile know, "I stand pervading the body." And just as a loofah-gourd shell filled with rainwater does not know, "rainwater stands within me" — nor does the rainwater know, "I stand within the loofah-gourd shell" — just so, the bile-sac does not know, "bound bile stands within me." Nor does the bound bile know, "I stand within the bile-sac." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus bile is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Phlegm, measuring the full of a single measuring-bowl, stands within the stomach-lining. Herein, just as a cesspool with a layer of froth formed atop it does not know, "a layer of froth stands upon me" — nor does the layer of froth know, "I stand upon the cesspool" — just so, the stomach-lining does not know, "phlegm stands within me." Nor does the phlegm know, "I stand within the stomach-lining." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus phlegm is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Pus has no fixed location; wherever, on a spot of the body struck by a stump, a thorn, a blow, or fire, blood settles and festers, or boils and pustules arise, there and there it stands. Herein, just as, in a tree from which sap oozes out by way of an axe-blow or the like, the struck spots of the tree do not know, "sap stands upon us" — nor does the sap know, "I stand upon the tree's struck spots" — just so, the spots of the body struck by a stump, thorn, or the like do not know, "pus stands upon us." Nor does the pus know, "I stand upon those spots." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus pus is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Among blood: circulating blood, like bile, stands pervading the entire body. Settled blood, filling the lower portion where the liver is located, to the measure of a single measuring-bowl, stands moistening the kidney, heart, liver, and lungs. Herein, for circulating blood, the same judgment holds as for unbound bile. As for the other kind: just as clods of earth or the like, lying beneath rainwater collected in a cracked bowl and being moistened, do not know, "we are being moistened by water" — nor does the water know, "I am moistening the clods of earth" — just so, the region below the liver, or the kidney and the rest, do not know, "blood stands within us," or, "blood stands moistening us." Nor does the blood know, "I stand filling the region below the liver, moistening the kidney and the rest." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus blood is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Sweat, at times of heat from fire and the like, fills the pores of the hair and body-hair, and either stands there or oozes out. Herein, just as, in bundles of lotus-fiber, lotus-root, or lily-stalk just now drawn up out of water, the openings of the fiber-bundles do not know, "water oozes out from us" — nor does the water oozing from those openings know, "I ooze out from these openings" — just so, the pores of hair and body-hair do not know, "sweat oozes out from us." Nor does the sweat know, "I ooze out from the pores of hair and body-hair." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus sweat is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Fat, a congealed unctuous substance, stands, in a stout person, spread through the entire body, and, in a thin person, resting on the flesh of the calves and the like. Herein, just as a lump of flesh covered by a turmeric-colored cloth does not know, "a turmeric-colored cloth rests upon me" — nor does the turmeric-colored cloth know, "I rest upon the lump of flesh" — just so, the flesh throughout the entire body, or on the calves and the like, does not know, "fat rests upon me." Nor does the fat know, "I rest upon the flesh of the entire body, or of the calves and the like." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus fat is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, a congealed fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Tears, when they arise, fill the eye-sockets, and either stand there or flow out. Herein, just as, in young palmyra-shoot hollows filled with water, the hollows do not know, "water stands within us" — nor does the water in the hollows know, "I stand within these hollows" — just so, the eye-sockets do not know, "tears stand within us." Nor do the tears know, "I stand within the eye-sockets." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus tears are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Grease, at times of heat from fire and the like, is a melted unctuous substance standing in the palms of the hands, the backs of the hands, the soles of the feet, the backs of the feet, the nostrils, the forehead, and the shoulders. Herein, just as, when oil is poured over gruel-scum, the gruel-scum does not know, "oil stands spread over me" — nor does the oil know, "I stand spread over the gruel-scum" — just so, the region of the palms and the rest does not know, "grease stands spread over me." Nor does the grease know, "I stand spread over the region of the palms and the rest." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus grease is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Saliva, when the appropriate condition for its arising is present, descends from both cheeks and stands on the surface of the tongue. Herein, just as, in a hollow on a riverbank with an unbroken flow of water, the bottom of the hollow does not know, "water stands settled upon me" — nor does the water know, "I stand settled upon the bottom of the hollow" — just so, the surface of the tongue does not know, "saliva, descended from both cheeks, stands upon me." Nor does the saliva know, "I stand, descended from both cheeks, upon the surface of the tongue." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus saliva is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Snot, when it arises, fills the nostrils, and either stands there or flows out. Herein, just as an oyster-shell filled with spoiled curd does not know, "spoiled curd stands within me" — nor does the spoiled curd know, "I stand within the oyster-shell" — just so, the nostrils do not know, "snot stands within us." Nor does the snot know, "I stand within the nostrils." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus snot is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Synovial fluid, performing the function of lubricating the bone-joints, stands at the hundred and eighty joints. Herein, just as an axle greased with oil does not know, "oil stands having greased me" — nor does the oil know, "I stand having greased the axle" — just so, the hundred and eighty joints do not know, "synovial fluid stands having greased us." Nor does the synovial fluid know, "I stand having greased the hundred and eighty joints." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus synovial fluid is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Urine stands within the bladder. Herein, just as a narrow-mouthed pot into which cesspool-liquid has been poured does not know, "cesspool-liquid stands within me" — nor does the cesspool-liquid know, "I stand within the narrow-mouthed pot" — just so, the bladder does not know, "urine stands within me." Nor does the urine know, "I stand within the bladder." These phenomena are devoid of any mutual awareness or reflection upon one another. Thus urine is, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, having become a fluid, of a cohesive nature — the water element.

Having thus carried out attention with regard to hair and the rest, attention should be carried out with regard to the fire-element constituents in this way: "that by which one is warmed — this, in this body, is a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, of a ripening nature — the fire element"; "that by which one ages, that by which one is consumed, that by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested — this, in this body, is a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, of a ripening nature — the fire element."

Then, having grasped the upward-going winds by way of their being upward-going, the downward-going winds by way of their being downward-going, the belly-winds by way of their being in the belly, the bowel-winds by way of their being in the bowels, the limb-coursing winds by way of their coursing through the limbs, and the in-and-out breaths by way of their being in-and-out breathing — "the upward-going winds are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, of a distending nature — the wind element"; and likewise, "the downward-going winds," "the belly-winds," "the bowel-winds," "the limb-coursing winds," and "the in-and-out breaths are, in this body, a separate portion, mindless, indeterminate, empty, without a living being, of a distending nature — the wind element." Thus should attention be carried out with regard to the wind-element constituents. For one carrying out attention in this way, the elements become evident. For one who repeatedly adverts to and attends to them, access concentration arises by the very method already stated.

But if, for one developing it in this way, the meditation subject does not succeed, he should develop it by way of concise treatment of the characteristics. How? Among the twenty constituents, the characteristic of hardness should be determined as the earth element. In that very same group, the characteristic of cohesion should be determined as the water element. The characteristic of ripening should be determined as the fire element. The characteristic of distension should be determined as the wind element.

Among the twelve constituents, the characteristic of cohesion should be determined as the water element. In that very same group, the characteristic of ripening should be determined as the fire element. The characteristic of distension should be determined as the wind element. The characteristic of hardness should be determined as the earth element.

Among the four constituents, the characteristic of ripening should be determined as the fire element. Inseparable from it, the characteristic of distension should be determined as the wind element. The characteristic of hardness should be determined as the earth element. The characteristic of cohesion should be determined as the water element.

Among the six constituents, the characteristic of distension should be determined as the wind element. In that very same group, the characteristic of hardness should be determined as the earth element. The characteristic of cohesion should be determined as the water element. The characteristic of ripening should be determined as the fire element. For one determining in this way, the elements become evident. For one who repeatedly adverts to and attends to them, access concentration arises by the very method already stated.

But if, for one developing it even in this way, the meditation subject does not succeed, he should develop it by way of detailed treatment of the characteristics. How? Having grasped hair and the rest by the method already stated, in hair itself, the characteristic of hardness should be determined as the earth element. In that very same hair, the characteristic of cohesion should be determined as the water element. The characteristic of ripening should be determined as the fire element. The characteristic of distension should be determined as the wind element. In this way, in each and every one of all the constituents, all four elements should be determined. For one determining in this way, the elements become evident. For one who repeatedly adverts to and attends to them, access concentration arises by the very method already stated.

Moreover, the elements should also be attended to by these further aspects: by way of the meaning of the terms, by way of grouping, by way of atomization, by way of characteristic and so on, by way of origin, by way of diversity and unity, by way of separability and inseparability, by way of similarity and dissimilarity, by way of the distinction between internal and external, by way of classification, by way of condition, by way of non-mutual-awareness, and by way of the analysis of conditions.

Herein, attending by way of the meaning of the terms: because of being spread out, it is "earth." Because it flows, or is drunk, or draws in, it is "water." Because it matures, it is "fire." Because it blows, it is "wind." But, without distinguishing among the four, because of bearing its own characteristic, and because of receiving and being a basis for suffering, it is "an element." Thus should attention be given, by way of both the specific and the general meaning, to the meaning of the terms.

By way of grouping: as for this earth element, specified by twenty aspects through the method beginning with hair and body-hair, and the water element, specified by twelve aspects through the method beginning with bile and phlegm — herein, because —

Color, smell, taste, nutritive essence, and the four elements as well — from the combination of these eight things comes the convention "hair"; from the separating-out of these very same things, the convention "hair" does not exist.

Therefore, hair too is merely a group of eight things. So too body-hair and the rest. But whatever constituent among these is kamma-originated is, together with the life faculty and sex-determining materiality, a group of ten things as well. Yet, by virtue of predominance, it comes to be reckoned as "the earth element" or "the water element." Thus should attention be given by way of grouping.

By way of atomization: in this body, if grasped by an average measure, the earth element, broken down and pulverized to the point of its ultimate atomic particles, reduced to fine dust, would amount to about a bushel. That earth element, held together by the water element — whose measure is half of that — sustained by the fire element, and distended by the wind element, is neither scattered nor dispersed; and, not being scattered, not being dispersed, it takes on the manifold distinctions of appearing as male, female, and the rest, and manifests such states as being small, large, long, short, firm, and rigid.

Here, the water element — fluid, of a cohesive nature — established upon the earth element, sustained by fire, and distended by wind, neither drips away nor trickles away; and, not dripping away, not trickling away, it displays a state of ever-fresh moistness.

Here, the fire element — the digester of what is eaten, drunk, and the rest, of a heat-like nature, having the characteristic of heat — established upon the earth element, held together by water, and distended by wind, ripens this body and brings about its healthy complexion. And this body, ripened by that fire element, does not display a state of putrefaction.

Here, the wind element — spread throughout the limbs, having the characteristic of movement and distension — established upon the earth element, held together by water, and sustained by fire, distends this body. And this body, distended by that wind element, does not collapse, but stands upright. Struck by yet another portion of the wind element, it displays intimation in the postures of going, standing, sitting, and lying down; it bends, it stretches, it moves the hands and feet playfully. Thus, this mechanism of elements proceeds, deceiving foolish people by way of the appearance of male, female, and the rest — resembling a conjured, illusory form. Thus should attention be given by way of atomization.

By way of characteristic and so on: having brought all four elements to mind thus — "what is the characteristic, what is the function, what is the manifestation of the earth element?" — the earth element has the characteristic of hardness, the function of acting as a foundation, and the manifestation of receiving. The water element has the characteristic of trickling, the function of augmenting, and the manifestation of cohering. The fire element has the characteristic of heat, the function of ripening, and the manifestation of continually supplying softness. The wind element has the characteristic of distension, the function of causing movement, and the manifestation of conveyance. Thus should attention be given by way of characteristic and so on.

By way of origin: among these forty-two constituents shown in detail, beginning with hair and the rest, as belonging to the earth element and the rest — of these, the four constituents stomach-contents, feces, pus, and urine are temperature-originated alone. The four constituents tears, sweat, saliva, and snot are originated from both temperature and mind. The fire that digests what is eaten and the rest is kamma-originated alone. In-and-out breathing is mind-originated alone. All the rest are of fourfold origin. Thus should attention be given by way of origin.

By way of diversity and unity: all the elements have diversity by way of characteristic and so on. For the earth element's characteristic, function, and manifestation are one thing, and those of the water element and the rest are different things. But although these are thus diverse by way of characteristic and the rest, and by way of kamma-origination and the rest, they also have unity by way of being form, great elements, elements, phenomena, impermanent, and so on. For all the elements, not having gone beyond the characteristic of being subject to alteration, are "form." By reason of great manifestation and the rest, they are "great elements."

"By reason of great manifestation and the rest": these elements are called "great elements" for these reasons — by reason of their great manifestation, by their similarity to great spirit-beings, by their great maintenance-requirement, by their great transformation, and because they are great and because they are real.

Herein, "by reason of great manifestation": these elements have manifested in great form both in the non-clung-to continuum and in the clung-to continuum. Their great manifestation in the non-clung-to continuum —

"Two hundred thousand, and four times ten thousand besides — reckoned to this thickness is this earth" —

by the method beginning thus, this great manifestation has already been stated in the exposition of the recollection of the Buddha.

In the clung-to continuum too, they have manifested in great form by way of the bodies of fish, tortoises, devas, and asuras. For this was said: "monks, in the great ocean there exist beings whose bodies are even a hundred leagues long," and so on.

"By similarity to great spirit-beings": these elements, just as a magician makes mere water appear as a jewel and shows it, or makes a mere clod appear as gold and shows it —

and just as a spirit, itself being neither male nor female, displays the appearance of a male spirit or a female spirit — just so, these elements, themselves not blue at all, display derived matter that is blue; being neither yellow, nor red, nor white at all, they display derived matter that is white. Thus, by their similarity to a magician and to a great spirit-being, they are "great elements."

And just as, when great spirit-beings possess someone, no location for them, either inside or outside that person, can be found, and yet they do not stand without depending on that person — just so, these elements too, existing neither found standing inside nor outside one another, nevertheless do not stand without depending on one another. Thus, by this unthinkable manner of location, similar to great spirit-beings, they too are "great elements."

And just as great spirit-beings reckoned as demonesses, concealing their own terrifying nature behind pleasing forms, shapes, and gestures, deceive beings — just so, these elements too, in the bodies of women and men and the like, concealing their own true characteristic — divided into hardness and the rest — behind a pleasing skin-color, a pleasing configuration of limbs, and pleasing gestures of hand, foot, finger, eyebrow, and face, deceive foolish people, not allowing them to see their true nature. Thus, by this deceptiveness, similar to demoness-spirits, they too are "great elements."

"By reason of great maintenance-requirement": because they must be maintained by great, continually needed conditions. For these elements, requiring great quantities of food, clothing, and the like to be supplied day after day, have come to be and go on — thus they are "great elements." Or: they are phenomena requiring great maintenance — thus "great elements."

"By reason of great transformation": these elements, both in the non-clung-to and the clung-to continuum, undergo great transformations. Among these, for the non-clung-to continuum, the greatness of transformation becomes evident at the destruction of an aeon. For the clung-to continuum, it becomes evident at a time of the disturbance of the elements. For thus it is said —

Risen up from the earth, it races as far as the Brahmā-world — the flame of the blazing world, when it is being burned by fire.
A hundred thousand times ten million world-systems dissolve, when the world is destroyed by disturbed water.
A hundred thousand times ten million world-systems are scattered, when the world is destroyed by the eruption of the wind element.
The body becomes stiffened, as if bitten by lockjaw — by the disturbance of the earth element, it becomes just like one afflicted with lockjaw.
The body becomes putrid, as if bitten by a venomous, putrid-mouthed creature — by the disturbance of the water element, it becomes just like one so afflicted.
The body becomes inflamed, as if bitten by a fire-mouthed creature — by the disturbance of the fire element, it becomes just like one so afflicted.
The body becomes cut through, as if bitten by a weapon-mouthed creature — by the disturbance of the wind element, it becomes just like one so afflicted.

Thus, they are elements of great transformation — "great elements."

"Because they are great and because they are real": these elements are great because they must be grasped by great effort, and they are real because they actually exist. Thus, being great and being real, they are "great elements."

Thus, all these elements, for the reasons of great manifestation and the rest, are "great elements."

But by virtue of bearing their own characteristic, and by virtue of receiving suffering and being a basis for suffering, all of them, not having gone beyond the characteristic of "element," are "elements." By virtue of bearing their own characteristic, and by virtue of enduring appropriately to their own moment, they are "phenomena." In the sense of perishing, they are "impermanent." In the sense of being fearful, they are "suffering." In the sense of having no core, they are "not-self."

Thus, all of these have unity by way of being form, great elements, elements, phenomena, impermanent, and so on. Thus should attention be given by way of diversity and unity.

By way of separability and inseparability: these elements, co-arisen, are, in each and every ultimate group such as the "pure octad" and the rest, inseparable by way of location. But they are separable by way of characteristic. Thus should attention be given by way of separability and inseparability.

By way of similarity and dissimilarity: although these are thus inseparable, the first two are similar to each other by reason of being heavy. Likewise, the latter two are similar to each other by reason of being light. But the first two are dissimilar to the latter two, and the latter two to the first two. Thus should attention be given by way of similarity and dissimilarity.

By way of the distinction between internal and external: the internal elements are the support for consciousness, the physical sense-bases, intimation, and the faculties; they possess postures; they are of fourfold origin. The external elements are of the opposite kind to what has been stated. Thus should attention be given by way of the distinction between internal and external.

By way of classification: the kamma-originated earth element is classed together with the other kamma-originated elements, because there is no diversity of origin between them. Likewise, mind-originated elements are classed with mind-originated elements, and so on. Thus should attention be given by way of classification.

By way of condition: the earth element, held together by water, sustained by fire, and distended by wind, is a condition for the other three great elements by being their foundation. The water element, established upon earth, sustained by fire, and distended by wind, is a condition for the other three great elements by being their cohesion. The fire element, established upon earth, held together by water, and distended by wind, is a condition for the other three great elements by being their ripening. The wind element, established upon earth, held together by water, and ripened by fire, is a condition for the other three great elements by being their distension. Thus should attention be given by way of condition.

By way of non-mutual-awareness: here, the earth element does not know, "I am the earth element," nor does it know, "I am a condition for the other three great elements by being their foundation." Nor do the other three know, "the earth element is a condition for us by being our foundation." This same method applies everywhere. Thus should attention be given by way of non-mutual-awareness.

By way of the analysis of conditions: the elements have four conditions — kamma, mind, nutriment, and temperature. Herein, for kamma-originated elements, kamma alone is the condition, not mind and the rest. For mind-originated elements too, mind and the rest alone are conditions, not the others. And kamma is a generative condition for kamma-originated elements, while for the rest it is, in an indirect sense, a decisive-support condition. Mind is a generative condition for mind-originated elements, while for the rest it is a post-nascence condition, a presence condition, and a non-disappearance condition. Nutriment is a generative condition for nutriment-originated elements, while for the rest it is a nutriment condition, a presence condition, and a non-disappearance condition. Temperature is a generative condition for temperature-originated elements, while for the rest it is a presence condition and a non-disappearance condition. A kamma-originated great element is a condition both for kamma-originated great elements and for mind-originated and other great elements. Likewise for a mind-originated and a nutriment-originated great element. A temperature-originated great element is a condition both for temperature-originated great elements and for kamma-originated and other great elements.

Herein, the kamma-originated earth element is a condition for the other kamma-originated elements by way of being co-nascent, mutual, a support, present, and non-disappearing, and also by way of being their foundation — but not by way of generation. For the great elements of the other three continuities, it is a condition by way of support, presence, and non-disappearance, but not by way of foundation, nor by way of generation. Here, the water element is a condition for the other three, within its own group, by way of being co-nascent and the rest, and also by way of cohesion, but not by way of generation. For the great elements of the other three continuities, it is a condition only by way of support, presence, and non-disappearance, not by way of cohesion, nor by way of generation. Here, the fire element is a condition for the other three by way of being co-nascent and the rest, and also by way of ripening, but not by way of generation. For the great elements of the other three continuities, it is a condition only by way of support, presence, and non-disappearance, not by way of ripening, nor by way of generation. Here, the wind element is a condition for the other three by way of being co-nascent and the rest, and also by way of distension, but not by way of generation. For the great elements of the other three continuities, it is a condition only by way of support, presence, and non-disappearance, not by way of distension, nor by way of generation. The same method applies also to the mind-originated, nutriment-originated, and temperature-originated earth element and the rest.

Thus, these elements, occurring by way of co-nascent and other such conditions —

In dependence on one, the other three occur, in four ways; in dependence on three, the one occurs, likewise in four ways; in dependence on two elements, the remaining two occur, in six ways.

For, in dependence on each single one among earth and the rest, the other three occur — thus, in dependence on one, the other three occur, in four ways. Likewise, in dependence on the other three, each single one among earth and the rest occurs — thus, in dependence on three, the one occurs, in four ways. But: in dependence on the first two, the last two occur; in dependence on the last two, the first two occur; in dependence on the first and third, the second and fourth occur; in dependence on the second and fourth, the first and third occur; in dependence on the first and fourth, the second and third occur; in dependence on the second and third, the first and fourth occur — thus, in dependence on two elements, the remaining two occur, in six ways.

Among these: the earth element, at the time of moving forward, moving back, and the like, is a condition for pressing down. That same earth element, accompanied by the water element, is a condition for settling in place. The water element, accompanied by the earth element, is a condition for lowering. The fire element, accompanied by the wind element, is a condition for lifting up. The wind element, accompanied by the fire element, is a condition for carrying forward and carrying across. Thus should attention be given by way of the analysis of conditions.

Thus, for one attending by way of the meaning of the terms and the rest, too, the elements become evident, one gateway at a time. For one who repeatedly adverts to and attends to them, access concentration arises by the very method already stated. And this concentration, arising by the power of the knowledge that determines the four elements, comes to be known simply as "the determining of the four elements."

And the monk devoted to this determining of the four elements plunges into voidness, and uproots the perception of a being. Since the perception of a being has been uprooted in him, not adverting to the distinctions of wild beast, spirit, ogre, and the like, he becomes one who overcomes fear and dread, one who overcomes discontent and delight; he does not fall into elation or dejection over what is desirable or undesirable. And he becomes one of great wisdom, either culminating in the deathless, or bound for a good destination.

Thus of such great power is this — the sport of a thousand excellent yogis; let the wise one constantly practice this determining of the four elements.

This is the exposition of the development of the determining of the four elements.

By this much, the treatment undertaken in the form of questions — beginning with such questions as "what is concentration? in what sense is it 'concentration'?" — in order to show the full extent of concentration and the method of its development, is completed; herein, the explanation of the meaning of the phrase "how should it be developed?" is now complete in every respect.

Here, only these two kinds of concentration are intended: access concentration and absorption concentration. Herein, one-pointedness of mind in the ten meditation subjects, and in the preliminary-stage consciousnesses leading up to absorption, is access concentration. One-pointedness of mind in the remaining meditation subjects is absorption concentration. This concentration, of both kinds, comes to be developed by virtue of the development of these meditation subjects. For this reason it was said, "the explanation of the meaning of the phrase 'how should it be developed?' is complete in every respect."

As for what was asked, "what is the benefit of the development of concentration?" — herein, the benefit of the development of concentration is fivefold, beginning with dwelling happily in the present life. For thus: those arahants whose taints are destroyed, who, having attained absorption with one-pointed mind, develop concentration thinking, "I shall dwell happily throughout the day" — for them, the development of absorption concentration has the benefit of dwelling happily in the present life. For this reason the Blessed One said, "Cunda, these are not called effacements in the noble one's discipline; these are called dwellings happily in the present life in the noble one's discipline" (M.N. 1.82).

For trainees and ordinary worldlings, emerging from the attainment, developing concentration thinking, "with a concentrated mind, I shall practice insight" — because it serves as the proximate cause for insight, both the development of absorption concentration, and, by the method of gaining an opening within confinement, the development of access concentration, have the benefit of insight. For this reason the Blessed One said, "Monks, develop concentration. A concentrated monk, monks, understands things as they really are" (S.N. 3.5).

But for those who, having produced the eight attainments and entered the jhāna serving as the basis for direct knowledge, emerging from that attainment, aspire to and produce the direct knowledges — such as, by the stated method, "having been one, he becomes many" — for them, because it serves, on each and every occasion, as the proximate cause for direct knowledge, the development of absorption concentration has the benefit of direct knowledge. For this reason the Blessed One said: "He directs his mind to whatever state is to be realized by direct knowledge, and he attains the capacity of being a witness to it, on each and every occasion, provided the conditions obtain" (M.N. 3.158; A.N. 3.102).

For those worldlings whose jhāna has not deteriorated — whether hoping for rebirth in the Brahmā-world, thinking, "I shall be reborn in the Brahmā-world," or not so hoping, but simply not falling away from concentration — for them, because it brings about a superior mode of existence, the development of absorption concentration has the benefit of a superior mode of existence. For this reason the Blessed One said: "Having developed the first jhāna to a limited degree, where are they reborn? They are reborn in the company of the deities of Brahmā's retinue," and so on (Vibh. 1024).

But the development of access concentration too brings about a superior mode of existence within the sense-sphere's good destinations.

But for those noble ones who, having produced the eight attainments, enter upon the attainment of cessation, and, being without consciousness for seven days, reach, in this very life, cessation — Nibbāna — developing concentration thinking, "I shall dwell in happiness" — for them, the development of absorption concentration has the benefit of cessation. For this reason it is said: "the wisdom that is mastery, by way of sixteen kinds of exercise of knowledge and nine kinds of exercise of concentration, is the knowledge of the attainment of cessation" (Paṭis. i.34).

Thus, this is the fivefold benefit of the development of concentration, beginning with dwelling happily in the present life —

"Therefore, in this practice of the development of concentration — of manifold benefit, cleansing the stain of the defilements — let the wise one not be negligent."

By this much, in the Visuddhimagga taught by way of virtue, concentration, and wisdom in the verse, "a wise man, established on virtue" — concentration too has now been fully illuminated.

Thus, in the Visuddhimagga, composed for the joy of good people,
this is called the Samādhiniddesa —
the eleventh chapter.

The first is the Sīlaniddesa. The second, the Dhutaṅganiddesa. The third, the Kammaṭṭhānaggahaṇaniddesa. The fourth, the Pathavīkasiṇaniddesa. The fifth, the Sesakasiṇaniddesa. The sixth, the Asubhaniddesa. The seventh, the Chaanussatiniddesa. The eighth, the Sesānussatiniddesa. The ninth, the Brahmavihāraniddesa. The tenth, the Āruppaniddesa. The exposition of the pair consisting of the perception of repulsiveness and the determining of the elements is the eleventh.

The first part of the Visuddhimagga is finished.