The Four Foundations of Mindfulness

We have now explained the two gates of entering cultivation, through which the mind attains concentration. Once the mind has attained concentration, what is next to be cultivated? Verse: relying on the calm-abiding already accomplished through cultivation, one cultivates the foundations of mindfulness for the sake of insight, observing body, feeling, mind, and dharmas by way of both their own specific and their shared characteristics. Their essential nature is the wisdom born of hearing and the rest; the remaining aspects are mixed-with-associates and object-based. They are said to arise in this sequence; and, because they counter the inversions, there are exactly four. Explanation: relying on the fully accomplished, excellent calm-abiding already cultivated, one cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness for the sake of insight. How does one cultivate them? By observing body, feeling, mind, and dharmas through both their own specific and their shared characteristics. The distinct essential nature of each individually is called its specific characteristic. That all conditioned things are impermanent, that all contaminated things are suffering, and that all dharmas are empty and without self are called the shared characteristics. The essential nature of the body is the derived matter composed of the four great elements. The essential nature of feeling and of mind are as their own names indicate. The essential nature of dharmas is whatever dharmas remain, excluding the preceding three. It is said that, while in concentration, observing the body distinctly down to its ultimate particles and momentary instants constitutes the completion of body-mindfulness; the completion of the remaining three should be understood correspondingly. What constitutes the substance of the four foundations of mindfulness? Each has three distinct aspects: its own essential nature, its mixed-with-associates aspect, and its object-based aspect. The own-nature foundation has wisdom as its substance, this wisdom being of three kinds — born of hearing and the others — accordingly also called the three kinds of mindfulness-foundation. The mixed-with-associates foundation has as its substance whatever else co-arises with that wisdom. The object-based foundation has as its substance whatever dharmas that wisdom takes as its object. How is it known that the own-nature aspect is specifically wisdom, and not something else? Because a sūtra states: abiding in the body, repeatedly observing the body, is called body-mindfulness-foundation — and the same holds for the remaining three. The term "repeatedly observing" refers specifically to the substance of wisdom, since nothing other than wisdom has the function of repeated observation.

Why is the name mindfulness-foundation applied to wisdom? The Vaibhāṣika masters explain: because, in this category, mindfulness is especially prominent — wisdom is able to function precisely because it is sustained by the power of mindfulness, just as an axe splits wood because it is held steady by the force of a wedge. In truth, it should rather be said that wisdom is what causes mindfulness to remain established, and it is for this reason that the name mindfulness-foundation is applied to wisdom: because, in dependence on whatever wisdom observes, mindfulness remains clearly fixed upon it. On this basis, the Venerable Aniruddha states: whoever is able to abide in the body, repeatedly observing the body, has mindfulness of the body thereby established, and so on, at length. The Blessed One likewise states: whoever abides in the body, repeatedly observing the body, has mindfulness thereby established without error. There is, however, a further sūtra passage stating: by what are these four foundations of mindfulness assembled, and by what are they dissolved? By the assembling of food, contact, name-and-form, and mental application, respectively, body, feeling, mind, and dharmas are assembled; by their dissolving, respectively, body, feeling, mind, and dharmas are dissolved. It should be understood that this passage speaks of the object-based foundation of mindfulness, since it is with reference to that object that mindfulness comes to be established. The foundations of mindfulness are also distinguished by name according to whether their object is one's own continuum, another's, or both together. Each individual foundation thus has three kinds. These four foundations are said to arise in this specific sequence. Why does this sequence hold? Whichever object is coarser should logically be observed first, and since desire and craving operate specifically with respect to the body, its contemplation is placed first. Craving for the body arises because one delights in feeling; delighting in feeling arises because the mind is not yet tamed; and the mind's untamed state arises because affliction has not yet been severed — hence the sequence through feeling, mind, and dharmas. These four foundations respectively counteract the four inversions of purity, pleasure, permanence, and self, and it is for this reason that there are exactly four, neither more nor fewer.

Among these four, three take only unmixed objects, while the fourth can take either a mixed or an unmixed object. Observing dharmas alone is called taking an unmixed object; observing two, three, or all four of body and the rest together is called taking a mixed object. Having thus matured the practice of the dharma-foundation of mindfulness with a mixed object encompassing body and the rest, what does one cultivate next? Verse: abiding in that dharma-mindfulness-foundation, one observes all four objects together, cultivating the aspects of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self. Explanation: that practitioner, abiding within the dharma-foundation of mindfulness that takes a totally mixed object, observes all four objects — body and the rest — together, cultivating four aspects: impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self.

Having cultivated this observation, what wholesome root does it give rise to? Verse: from this arises the dharma of warmth, at which stage one fully observes the four noble truths, cultivating the sixteen aspects; next arises the dharma of summit, likewise; for both of these two wholesome roots, mindfulness begins with the dharma foundation alone, and then encompasses all four afterward. Explanation: as one cultivates the totally-combined, shared-characteristic dharma-mindfulness-foundation, it gradually matures up to its highest-of-the-highest grade. Following this mindfulness-foundation, the first wholesome root conducive to reaching the decisive distinction arises — this is called the dharma of warmth. This dharma is named warmth by analogy with actual warmth, since it is the preliminary sign of the fire of the noble path, the fire capable of burning up the firewood of affliction, and, being like the warmth that precedes an actual fire, it is called warmth. Because this wholesome root of warmth spans a comparatively long stage, it is capable of fully observing the object of all four noble truths, and of fully cultivating all sixteen aspects. In observing the noble truth of suffering, one cultivates four aspects: impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self. In observing the noble truth of the origin, one cultivates four aspects: cause, origin, arising, and condition. In observing the noble truth of cessation, one cultivates four aspects: cessation, peace, excellence, and freedom. In observing the noble truth of the path, one cultivates four aspects: path, suchness, practice, and deliverance. The specific distinctions among these aspects will be discussed later.

As this wholesome root of warmth gradually increases through its lower, middle, and upper grades, and reaches completion, a further wholesome root arises, called the dharma of summit — since this represents a further advance in excellence, it is given a distinct new name. Among the movable wholesome roots, this dharma is the most excellent, comparable to the crown of a person's head, hence it is called the dharma of summit. Or, alternatively, because this stage is the very turning point between advancing further and falling back, like the peak of a mountain, it is called summit. This likewise, just as with warmth, fully observes the four truths and is capable of fully cultivating the sixteen aspects. For both of these two wholesome roots, warmth and summit, at the moment of their initial setting foot, only the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is present. What is meant by initial setting foot? It refers to the very first moment at which a given wholesome root, through the sixteen aspects, first treads upon the path of the four noble truths; as it subsequently advances further, all four foundations of mindfulness become present. Whatever was previously attained does not yet manifest again at that first moment, since one has not yet generated a sense of high regard toward those foundations individually.

As this wholesome root of summit gradually increases through its lower, middle, and upper grades, and reaches completion, a further wholesome root arises, called the dharma of patience — since, among the various capacities for patiently accepting the principle of the four truths, this is the most excellent. Moreover, at this stage, patience no longer admits of falling back into an unfortunate rebirth, and so it is named the dharma of patience. This wholesome root of patience, both at its initial attainment and as it subsequently advances, is always the dharma-foundation of mindfulness alone, differing in this respect from the preceding two. This dharma of patience itself has lower, middle, and upper grades. Its lower and middle grades are the same as summit, fully observing all four noble truths and fully cultivating the sixteen aspects. Its upper grade, however, differs: it observes only the desire realm's truth of suffering, since it stands immediately adjacent to supreme mundane dharma. On this basis, it is established, without further distinction needed, that warmth and the other wholesome roots are each capable of fully taking as their object the suffering and so forth of all three realms. That is, the yoga practitioner, with respect to the counteragent paths for the form and formless realms and so on, progressively reduces and contracts the object taken with respect to each aspect of each noble truth in turn, until only two moments of mental application remain, contemplating the object of the desire realm's truth of suffering alone — everything up to this point is called the stage of middle patience.

Immediately following this stage, without interruption, a superior wholesome root arises, lasting a single aspect for a single instant — this is called upper-grade patience, since this wholesome root arises without any continuity. Immediately following upper-grade patience, supreme mundane dharma arises. Just as upper-grade patience takes the desire realm's truth of suffering as its object, cultivating a single aspect for a single instant only, so too does this: because it is contaminated, it is called mundane; because it is the most excellent, it is called supreme. This contaminated dharma is the most excellent among all worldly dharmas, and it is for this reason that it is called supreme mundane dharma. It possesses the power of a person's own effort and, apart from any homogeneous cause of its own kind, is capable of drawing forth the arising of the noble path — and it is for this reason that it is called most supreme. Thus, all four of these wholesome roots, being of the nature of mindfulness-foundations, all have wisdom as their essential substance; if their accompanying associates are included as well, they have the nature of all five aggregates. This excludes, however, their attainment, lest the wholesome roots of warmth and the rest manifest again for noble ones.

Here, when warmth is first attained, with respect to the three truths, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as four. With respect to the truth of cessation, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as one; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as four. This is because, this type not having been previously attained, only what shares its exact category can be cultivated for the future at this stage. As one subsequently advances further, with respect to the three truths, any one mindfulness-foundation is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen. With respect to the truth of cessation, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen — because, this type having already been previously attained, even what is not of the same category can now also be cultivated.

At summit's initial attainment, with respect to all four truths, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen. As one subsequently advances, with respect to the three truths, any one mindfulness-foundation is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen. With respect to the truth of cessation, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen. At patience's initial attainment and as it subsequently advances, with respect to all four truths, the dharma-foundation of mindfulness is cultivated in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as sixteen. However, at the point in its advancement where the object taken begins to contract, one no longer cultivates the aspects corresponding to whatever object has been contracted away. Supreme mundane dharma, taking the desire realm's truth of suffering as its object, cultivates the dharma-foundation of mindfulness in the present as one and in the future as four; with respect to any one aspect, in the present as one and in the future as four, since it admits of no differing category, being itself already similar in character to the path of seeing.

We have now explained the character and substance of these arising wholesome roots; next we should explain their further distinguishing features. Verse: these, favorable to the decisive distinction, are all accomplished through meditation; they depend on six stages, or two, or seven; in dependence on a desire-realm body, in nine places; the first three are attained by both women and men, each attaining two; the fourth, for women, is likewise so. Explanation: these four superior wholesome roots — warmth, summit, patience, and supreme mundane dharma — are collectively called favorable to the decisive distinction. On what basis is this name established? Decisive means cutting through decisively; distinction means discerning discriminately. What decisively cuts through and discriminately discerns is the noble path itself, since the noble path alone is capable of severing doubt, and capable of distinguishing the specific characteristics of the four truths. Portion means a segment; this term indicates that what these four roots favor is specifically a single portion of the path of seeing, the decisive-distinction portion, hence the name. These four serve as the condition that draws forth this decisive-distinction portion, favorably benefiting it, and it is for this reason that they are named favorable to it. All four are accomplished exclusively through meditation, never through hearing or reflection alone, since they exist only within stages of balanced meditative absorption. Among these four, the first two belong to the lower grade, since both are still movable, still capable of retrogression. Patience belongs to the middle grade, since it surpasses the first two, while still having supreme mundane dharma above it. Supreme mundane dharma alone belongs to the upper grade.

All four of these wholesome roots depend on six stages: the four dhyānas, the preparatory stage, and the intermediate dhyāna. They do not occur in the desire realm, since the desire realm lacks balanced meditative absorption. Nor do they occur in the remaining higher stages, since these four wholesome roots belong specifically to the retinue of the path of seeing. Moreover, a mind belonging to the formless realm cannot take the desire realm as its object, whereas the desire realm's truth of suffering must first be fully understood and severed. These four wholesome roots are capable of serving as a completing cause for the ripened fruition of the five aggregates in the form realm, but are not capable of serving as a projecting cause for it, since they are themselves opposed to and turn away from continued existence. The word "or" indicates two differing accounts, one regarding warmth and summit specifically. The Venerable Ghoṣaka states: in dependence on the aforementioned six stages plus the desire realm, these four wholesome roots arise in dependence on a desire-realm body, occurring among humans and gods, in nine places, excluding the northern continent. The first three wholesome roots first arise in one of the three continents, and, for one subsequently reborn in a heavenly realm, can continue to manifest there. The fourth wholesome root can also newly arise in a heavenly realm, since it exists for only a single instant, with no earlier or later phase. These four wholesome roots depend only on a male or female body. For the first three, both men and women can each attain both; for the fourth, a female body likewise attains both kinds. One relying on a male body attains only the male-body version of the wholesome root, since the female-body version has already undergone a non-analytical cessation for that basis.

A noble one attains this wholesome root in dependence on a particular meditative stage; only when that stage is lost does the wholesome root come to be relinquished. Losing the stage here refers to being reborn into a higher stage. For an ordinary worldling, however, whether or not the meditative stage itself is lost, the wholesome root is necessarily relinquished simply through the loss of that being's shared class-membership. The first two wholesome roots can also be relinquished through retrogression. Relinquishment through death applies only to ordinary worldlings, not to noble ones; relinquishment through losing the meditative stage applies only to noble ones, not to ordinary worldlings. With respect to patience and supreme mundane dharma, even ordinary worldlings never retrogress from them. One who gives rise to warmth and the other wholesome roots by relying on a root meditative stage will, within that very lifetime, definitely attain the seeing of the truths, since their aversion toward birth-and-death is exceptionally intense. If, having previously relinquished a wholesome root, one later attains it again, what is thereby attained is necessarily not identical to what was previously relinquished, just as one who has relinquished the prātimokṣa precepts and later takes them up again receives a genuinely new instance, since the original was never brought to maturity through great, sustained effort. If one has previously attained warmth and the other wholesome roots, but then passes through a rebirth, causing them to be relinquished, and then encounters a skilled teacher of the Dharma who properly discerns their stage, summit and the rest can arise again directly; but if no such teacher is encountered, one must instead cultivate again entirely from the beginning. Both losing and retrogressing have as their essential nature a lack of continued attainment; however, retrogression necessarily involves the arising of some fault, whereas mere loss does not necessarily involve this.

What benefit comes from attaining these wholesome roots? Verse: warmth guarantees eventually reaching nirvāṇa; summit ensures one's wholesome roots are never ultimately cut off; patience ensures one never falls into an unfortunate rebirth; and supreme mundane dharma leads directly into the state free from birth. Explanation: among the four wholesome roots, if one has attained warmth, then, even though one might still retrogress, cut off one's own wholesome roots, commit an ānantarya offense, or fall into an unfortunate rebirth, one will nevertheless not circulate in saṃsāra for long, since one is guaranteed eventually to reach nirvāṇa. If this is so, how does warmth differ from the liberation-conducive wholesome roots? Absent any obstruction, warmth stands close to the seeing of the truths, since its mode of activity is already the same as that of the path of seeing itself. If one has attained summit, then, even though retrogression and the like remain possible, one gains the assurance that one's wholesome roots will never ultimately be cut off. If one has attained patience, then, even though this wholesome root may be relinquished through death while one still remains an ordinary worldling, one gains the assurance of never retrogressing from it, never committing an ānantarya offense, and never falling into an unfortunate rebirth. The verse states only "does not fall into an unfortunate rebirth," yet it can be inferred from this alone that one also never commits an ānantarya offense, since whoever commits such an offense necessarily falls into an unfortunate rebirth.

That the stage of patience admits of no retrogression has already been explained. As for why this stage never falls into any unfortunate rebirth: it is because one has already become far removed from the karma and afflictions that would lead to such a rebirth. Once one reaches the stage of patience, one attains a dharma of non-arising with respect to a small number of specific destinies, modes of birth, places, bodies, states of existence, and afflictions. Destinies refers to the various unfortunate destinies. Modes of birth refers to birth from an egg or from moisture. Places refers to the heaven of no-thought, the northern continent, and the abode of Mahābrahmā. Bodies refers to the eunuch, the sexually indeterminate, and the hermaphroditic body. States of existence refers to an eighth or further rebirth. Afflictions refers to the afflictions abandoned by seeing. These are attained, as appropriate, at the lower or upper stage respectively — at lower-grade patience, one attains non-arising with respect to unfortunate rebirths; non-arising with respect to all the remaining categories is attained only upon reaching upper-grade patience. Upon attaining supreme mundane dharma, even though one still technically remains at the stage of an ordinary worldling, one becomes capable of directly entering into the state of true, correct freedom from birth. Although the verse does not explicitly state that supreme mundane dharma is free from being relinquished through death, since it leads without any interruption directly into the state of freedom from birth, it can be inferred that it is indeed never relinquished through death. Why is it that only this wholesome root is capable of leading into freedom from birth? Because it has already attained a non-analytical cessation with respect to the state of being an ordinary worldling, it is capable, functioning like an uninterrupted path, of relinquishing the very status of ordinary worldling. Each of these four wholesome roots itself has three further grades, corresponding to differences among the spiritual lineages.

Whatever lineage a wholesome root has arisen within, can it transfer toward a different vehicle? Verse: among those of the śrāvaka lineage, the first two can transform into buddhahood; the first three can transform into the remaining vehicle; the rhinoceros-horn type and the buddha admit of no transformation, since each attains awakening in a single sitting. Explanation: for one of the śrāvaka lineage, once warmth or summit has arisen, it remains possible to transform toward unsurpassed, perfect awakening. But once one has attained patience, there is no longer any possibility of becoming a buddha, since, having attained patience, one has already transcended unfortunate rebirths. A bodhisattva, whose very heart is set on benefiting all beings, must, in order to transform sentient beings, be willing to go even into unfortunate rebirths — but one who has already attained the fixed lineage of patience can no longer turn back toward this willingness, and it is for this reason that such a person can definitely never attain buddhahood. For one of the śrāvaka lineage, all three of warmth, summit, and patience retain the possibility of transforming toward the pratyekabuddha vehicle instead, since that vehicle lies outside full buddhahood, and is therefore called "the remaining" vehicle.

The verse's phrase "rhinoceros-horn, buddha" refers to the rhinoceros-horn-simile type and to unsurpassed buddhahood. For those following either of these two paths, their wholesome roots admit of no possibility of transformation toward any other vehicle at all, since both rely on the fourth dhyāna as their basis, and both attain the awakening proper to their own vehicle in a single sitting. The fourth dhyāna is a concentration that is unshakeable and supremely clear and sharp, and it is for this reason that it is capable of serving as the basis for both the rhinoceros-horn type and unsurpassed awakening. Here, the term awakening refers to the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising, since these constitute the essential nature of bodhi itself, to be discussed later. By a single sitting is meant that, from the arising of the wholesome root of warmth all the way through to the attainment of awakening, one never rises from one's seat. Other teachers say instead: one does not rise from one's seat from the very beginning of impurity-contemplation all the way through to awakening. There is another kind of pratyekabuddha, distinct from the rhinoceros-horn type; for one of this lineage, the first two wholesome roots can indeed still transform toward a different vehicle, there being no obstruction in principle to this.

Is it possible that, in this very lifetime one first begins to cultivate this practice, one gives rise to the roots favorable to the decisive distinction in that same lifetime? No. What, then, is the actual timeline? Verse: the earlier liberation-conducive roots must be planted first; at the very fastest, liberation is reached across three lifetimes; these roots are accomplished through the three karmas of hearing and reflection, and are planted only among humans, in the three continents. Explanation: whoever gives rise to the roots favorable to the decisive distinction in the present lifetime must have given rise, in some prior lifetime, to the liberation-conducive roots. Whoever first plants the liberation-conducive roots will, at the very earliest, attain liberation only after three lifetimes. That is, in the first lifetime, the liberation-conducive roots arise; in the second lifetime, the roots favorable to the decisive distinction arise; and in the third lifetime, one enters the noble path and, in due course, attains liberation. This is comparable to the three distinct stages of planting a seed, the sprout maturing, and the fruit finally forming. The three stages of a person entering into the nature of the Dharma, maturing, and attaining liberation are likewise analogous to these.

It is said that these liberation-conducive roots are accomplished exclusively through hearing and reflection, and have as their essential substance all three kinds of karma together. Although, considered in its most essential and primary aspect, this is exclusively mental karma, nevertheless, since this same aspiration-volition can also give rise to accompanying bodily and verbal karma, these too can rightly be called part of the liberation-conducive roots. One who, for instance, gives even a single meal or keeps even a single precept, while deeply delighting in the aspiration for liberation, sustained by the power of that aspiration-vow, can rightly be said to have thereby planted the liberation-conducive roots. The liberation-conducive roots can be planted only among humans, in the three continents, since the remaining destinies lack the necessary aversion and wisdom, as appropriate to each case, and they are planted only upon encountering the arising of a buddha in the world. Other teachers say: one may also plant them upon encountering a pratyekabuddha.

We have now explained the preparatory paths, with supreme mundane dharma as their final edge — what path, then, arises next from this point? Verse: immediately following supreme mundane dharma, taking the desire realm's suffering as its object, an undefiled dharma-patience arises; following this patience, dharma-knowledge arises; next, taking the other realms' suffering as object, analogy-patience and analogy-knowledge arise. With respect to the truths of origin, cessation, and the path, each likewise gives rise to four. These sixteen mind-moments in total are called direct realization of the noble truths. This has three kinds in total, distinguished by seeing, by object, and by matter. Explanation: immediately following the wholesome root of supreme mundane dharma, taking the desire realm's truth of suffering as its object, an undefiled dharma-patience arises; this patience is called dharma-patience regarding suffering, and, in order to show that this patience is undefiled, it is named by reference to the equal-outflow effect that later follows from it. Because this patience is capable of giving rise to dharma-knowledge, being the cause of dharma-knowledge, it receives the name dharma-patience, just as one might call a tree a flower-fruit tree. This same moment is called entering true, correct freedom from birth, and is also called entering true, correct decisiveness, since it is the very first entry into both. The sūtras state that true, correct reality refers to nirvāṇa itself; or, alternatively, it may refer to the noble path as its cause. Birth refers to affliction, or to unripened faculties. Since the noble path is capable of transcending these, it is called freedom from birth, and since it decisively proceeds toward nirvāṇa, or decisively comprehends the truths, it earns the name decisiveness — and it is at this stage that one is said to enter both. Once this patience has arisen, one earns the name noble one; it is at this future moment that the status of ordinary worldling is relinquished, this patience alone having this specific function, just as a lamp dispels darkness the instant it is lit. Other teachers say instead that it is supreme mundane dharma that relinquishes this status; this does not hold, since both bear the name worldly dharma, their natures being mutually opposed for this purpose — yet there is no fault in it either, just as one standing on an enemy's own shoulder can still take that enemy's life. Other teachers say both jointly accomplish this relinquishment, on the model of the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation.

Immediately following this patience, still taking the desire realm's suffering as its object, dharma-knowledge arises; this is called dharma-knowledge regarding suffering. It should be understood that this knowledge, too, is included within the undefiled, since the earlier statement of undefiled flows through and applies to what follows it. Just as, taking the desire realm's truth of suffering as object, the dharma-patience and dharma-knowledge of suffering arise, so too, immediately following this dharma-knowledge, taking the truth of suffering belonging to the remaining realms as object, an analogy-patience arises, called analogy-patience regarding suffering. Immediately following this patience, still taking this object, analogy-knowledge arises, called analogy-knowledge regarding suffering. Because it is the very first to directly realize the true principle of the dharmas, it is called dharma-knowledge; because the object and knowledge that follow afterward resemble what came before, they receive the name analogy, since what comes later realizes its object by following after what came before. Just as, with respect to the truth of suffering, taking the desire realm and then the remaining realms as object, four moments arise — dharma-patience, dharma-knowledge, analogy-patience, and analogy-knowledge — so too, with respect to each of the remaining three truths, four such moments likewise arise. That is, following the preceding analogy-knowledge of suffering, taking the desire realm's truth of the origin as object, a dharma-patience arises, called dharma-patience regarding the origin. Immediately following this patience, still taking the desire realm's origin as object, dharma-knowledge arises, called dharma-knowledge regarding the origin. Next, taking the remaining realms' truth of the origin as object, analogy-patience arises, called analogy-patience regarding the origin. Immediately following this patience, analogy-knowledge arises, called analogy-knowledge regarding the origin. Next, taking the desire realm's truth of cessation as object, a dharma-patience arises, called dharma-patience regarding cessation. Immediately following, dharma-knowledge regarding cessation arises. Next, taking the remaining realms' truth of cessation as object, analogy-patience regarding cessation arises, followed immediately by analogy-knowledge regarding cessation. Next, taking the desire realm's truth of the path as object, dharma-patience regarding the path arises, followed immediately by dharma-knowledge regarding the path. Next, taking the remaining realms' truth of the path as object, analogy-patience regarding the path arises, followed immediately by analogy-knowledge regarding the path. In this sequence, there are sixteen mind-moments in total, collectively called the direct realization of the noble truths.

Here, other schools hold that direct realization occurs, with respect to the truths, all at once and instantaneously. However, their underlying intention needs to be further examined, since, in their account, the term direct realization would carry no further distinctions. Upon careful examination, direct realization is, in fact, of three kinds in total, distinguished by seeing, by object, and by matter. Only undefiled wisdom, directly and clearly seeing the object of the truths, is called direct realization by seeing. This same undefiled wisdom, together with its other associated mental factors, all sharing the identical object, is called direct realization by object. All of these object-taking factors, together with the further co-arisen dharmas dissociated from mind, such as moral discipline and the characteristic of arising, that share the same overall function, are together called direct realization by matter. At the moment of seeing the truth of suffering, one possesses all three kinds of direct realization with respect to the truth of suffering, but with respect to the remaining three truths, one possesses only direct realization by matter — namely, the severing, the realizing, and the cultivating, respectively.

If one claims that instantaneous direct realization applies with respect to direct realization by seeing specifically, this cannot be correct by reason, since the aspects through which each truth is observed differ from truth to truth. If one instead claims that all four truths are seen together through a single, unified aspect of non-self alone, then it would follow that one need not use the aspects of suffering and so forth to see the truth of suffering specifically — but this directly contradicts the sūtras. As a sūtra states: the noble disciples contemplate suffering through the aspect of suffering, contemplate the origin through the aspect of the origin, contemplate cessation through the aspect of cessation, and contemplate the path through the aspect of the path — this is the discernment of dharmas associated with undefiled mental application. If one claims that this sūtra passage refers specifically to the stage of the path of cultivation, this too fails, since the same holds whether at the stage of seeing or of cultivation. If, however, that other school instead means only that, upon seeing one truth, one gains a kind of mastery with respect to the remaining truths as well, and it is in this sense that they speak of instantaneous direct realization, then there is indeed no fault in this claim. Yet, within this kind of direct realization, whether or not certain mental factors actually arise in the interim still requires separate, careful examination. If, further, that other school means that, at the very moment of seeing suffering, one is already capable of severing the origin, realizing cessation, and cultivating the path, and it is in this sense that they speak of instantaneous direct realization, there is likewise no fault in this, since it was already explained above that, at the moment of seeing the truth of suffering, one possesses direct realization by matter with respect to the remaining three truths as well.

With respect to direct realization by seeing, there is genuine, explicit scriptural text stating that realization occurs gradually. As a sūtra states: the Buddha told a certain elder: with respect to the four noble truths, realization does not occur instantaneously; it necessarily occurs gradually, and so on, at length. There are three such sūtras, each with its own distinct simile. If one objects that there is a sūtra stating that, once one is free of confusion and doubt with respect to the truth of suffering, one is likewise free of confusion and doubt with respect to the Buddha, and takes this as proof of instantaneous realization — this too fails as proof, since that passage does not concern the process of concentrated realization itself, or else it should be understood that this outcome is necessarily bound to occur eventually, having been spoken with a hidden intention.

We have now explained that direct realization consists of sixteen mind-moments — which meditative stage do these sixteen depend on? Verse: they all depend on the same single stage as supreme mundane dharma. Explanation: it should be understood that these sixteen mind-moments depend on whichever of the meditative stages supreme mundane dharma itself depends on. These are the same six stages already explained earlier. Why must patience and knowledge necessarily arise in this specific alternating sequence? Verse: patience and knowledge arise, respectively and in order, as the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation. Explanation: among the sixteen mind-moments, patience always functions as the uninterrupted path, with respect to attaining the severance of affliction, since nothing is capable of obstructing it. Knowledge always functions as the path of liberation, with respect to the attainment of having already been liberated from affliction, since it arises together with the attainment of separation from that affliction. That both must occur in this fixed sequence is certainly correct by reason, comparable to the ordinary worldly process of first driving out a thief and only then shutting the door. If one claims instead that the uninterrupted path alone arises together with the attainment of separation, then, at this stage, the knowledge that doubt has already been severed ought definitely never to arise; and if one claims that, at the stage of seeing, it is patience alone that severs affliction, this would contradict the root treatise's own statement regarding the nine-fold grouping of bonds. This objection does not hold, since every patience is itself an attendant of knowledge, just as the deeds performed by a king's own attendants may rightly be called deeds performed by the king.

All sixteen of these mind-moments directly realize the principle of the truths — can all of them, then, be said to belong to the path of seeing? No. What, then, is the case? Verse: the first fifteen belong to the path of seeing, since they see what has never been seen before. Explanation: beginning with dharma-patience regarding suffering and ending with analogy-patience regarding the path, there are fifteen moments in total, all of which belong to the path of seeing, since each of them sees a truth that has never been seen before. By the sixteenth moment, analogy-knowledge regarding the path, there is no longer any truth-principle that is being seen for the first time — this moment is instead like practicing what has already been seen — and it is for this reason that it belongs to the path of cultivation instead. But is it not the case that, at that very moment, one is observing the truth of the path via analogy-patience, itself seeing the path's own truth-principle for the first time? This classification is made with reference to the truth, not with reference to each individual moment. It is not the case that a single moment's seeing something not seen before suffices to call the whole truth-principle newly seen, just as, when harvesting a field of rice with only a single remaining stalk left uncut, one cannot say that this field has not yet been harvested.

Moreover, analogy-knowledge regarding the path is included among the fruits of the path, since, at this moment, all eight kinds of knowledge and all sixteen aspects are simultaneously cultivated together; since one relinquishes the preceding path at this point; and since it arises in continuous succession — for these reasons, like the rest of the path of cultivation, it belongs to the path of cultivation, not to the path of seeing. But since analogy-knowledge regarding the path is a moment from which one can never retrogress, since it sustains and maintains the severances already accomplished by the path of seeing, should it not, for this very reason, belong to the path of seeing? This objection does not hold, since it would lead to an excessive over-extension of the same reasoning. Why, then, are the preceding seven knowledges likewise included within the path of seeing? Because seeing the truth-principles is not yet complete at those points — they arise in the interim before the complete, comprehensive seeing of all the truth-principles has been accomplished — and it is for this reason that they, too, are included within the path of seeing.

We have now explained the difference between the paths of seeing and cultivation — the various noble persons should now be established according to these path-stage distinctions. First, with respect to the fifteen moments of the path of seeing, the noble ones are distinguished as follows. Verse: named followers of faith and of dharma, distinguished by the dullness or sharpness of their faculties; one who has severed none of the cultivation-abandoned affliction, or one up to five grades, is aiming toward the first fruit; the next three grades severed makes one aiming toward the second; freedom from eight stages makes one aiming toward the third. Explanation: among noble ones at the stage of the path of seeing, there are two kinds: followers of faith, and followers of dharma, distinguished by the dullness or sharpness of their faculties. Those of dull faculties are called followers of faith; those of sharp faculties are called followers of dharma. Because they follow by means of faith, they are called followers of faith; or, because they have habituated themselves to this following-by-faith until it has become their disposition, they are so called, having previously believed others and followed accordingly. By the same reasoning, followers of dharma are so called because they previously followed by personally examining the sūtras and other teachings themselves. These same two kinds of noble one are further distinguished into three aiming-toward categories, based on how much cultivation-abandoned affliction they have already severed. If either has not previously severed any such affliction through a worldly path, they are called still fully bound; if they have previously severed one up to five grades of the desire realm, they are called aiming toward the first fruit, since they are heading toward it. By the first fruit is meant the fruit of stream-entry, necessarily attained first among all the fruits of the ascetic life. If they have previously severed the sixth, seventh, or eighth grade, they are called aiming toward the second fruit — the fruit of once-returning, the second fruit attained. If they have previously become entirely free of the desire realm's nine grades, or have previously severed even one grade of the first dhyāna, up through complete freedom from the sphere of nothingness, they are called aiming toward the third fruit — the fruit of non-returning.

Next, the various noble ones are further distinguished with respect to the stage of the path of cultivation, at analogy-knowledge regarding the path. Verse: upon reaching the sixteenth mind-moment, practitioners corresponding to each of the three aiming-toward categories now instead abide in the fruit, and are named, respectively, convinced-through-faith and attained-through-seeing, again distinguished by the dullness or sharpness of their faculties. Explanation: these same followers of faith and followers of dharma, upon reaching the sixteenth mind-moment, analogy-knowledge regarding the path, are now called abiders in the fruit, no longer called aiming toward. Corresponding to their previous three aiming-toward categories, they now abide in the three respective fruits: the former aiming toward stream-entry now abides in the fruit of stream-entry; the former aiming toward once-returning now abides in the fruit of once-returning; the former aiming toward non-returning now abides in the fruit of non-returning. The fruit of arhatship, however, can never be newly attained at this point, since the path of seeing has no capacity to sever cultivation-abandoned afflictions, and a worldly path has no capacity to become free of the peak of existence. Upon reaching the stage of abiding in the fruit, practitioners relinquish their former names and acquire new ones — no longer called followers of faith or followers of dharma, they instead newly acquire the two names convinced-through-faith and attained-through-seeing, again distinguished by the dullness or sharpness of their faculties. Those of dull faculties, formerly followers of faith, are now called convinced-through-faith; those of sharp faculties, formerly followers of dharma, are now called attained-through-seeing. Between these two kinds of noble one, faith and wisdom are each, respectively, more prominent, and it is on this basis that the distinct names are assigned.

At the moment of attaining any given fruit, one has certainly not yet attained the path leading to a superior fruit; hence, one who abides in a fruit remains so named, not named as aiming toward the next fruit, until such time as that superior path actually arises. However, for one who had previously severed one up to five grades of desire-realm cultivation-abandoned affliction, upon attaining the fruit, it is certain that, within this very lifetime, the superior path will arise. For this reason, one who had already become free of the defilement of the three dhyānas beforehand, and then enters the path of seeing relying on a lower stage, will, once having attained the fruit, definitely be capable of drawing forth the subsequent, superior path within that same lifetime. Were this not so, it could not be said that a noble one reborn in a higher stage would definitely come to possess the pleasure-faculty. Having thus established, with reference to the sixteen mind-moments, the distinctions among noble ones, we should next explain, with reference to cultivation-abandoned affliction, the stage-by-stage distinctions among the counteragent paths. Verse: in each and every stage, both fault and virtue number nine, each of the three grades further dividing into three. Explanation: fault refers to the affliction to be counteracted, the obstruction itself. Virtue refers to the counteragent path capable of countering it. Just as already explained for the nine grades of desire-realm cultivation-abandoned affliction, the same pattern applies, by analogy, all the way up through the peak of existence. Just as the obstruction to be severed has nine grades within each stage, so too do the counteragent paths, both uninterrupted and liberation, likewise each have nine grades. How are fault and virtue each divided into nine grades? The root grades are lower, middle, and upper; each of these three is further divided into its own lower, middle, and upper, hence fault and virtue are each divided into nine grades: lower-lower, lower-middle, lower-upper; middle-lower, middle-middle, middle-upper; upper-lower, upper-middle, upper-upper.

It should be understood that the power of the lowest-of-the-lowest grade path is capable of severing the highest-of-the-highest grade obstruction, and so on, up to the power of the highest-of-the-highest grade path being capable of severing the lowest-of-the-lowest grade obstruction. This is because the highest-of-the-highest grade counteragent virtues and the like do not exist at the very outset, while by the time such virtues do arise, the highest-of-the-highest grade faults have already ceased to exist. This is like washing clothes: the coarse dirt is removed first, and only afterward, gradually, is the finer dirt removed. Or again, like how a small light is sufficient to dispel coarse darkness, but only a great light can dispel subtle darkness — the correspondence between fault and virtue should, by reason, be understood in just this same way. Yet the power of wholesome dharmas is strong, while the power of unwholesome dharmas is comparatively weak — hence, in but a single instant, even an inferior grade of path manifesting in actual practice is capable of instantly severing the superior-grade afflictions that have been accumulating and intensifying since beginningless time. This is like how an illness accumulated over a long period of time can nevertheless be instantly cured by taking just a small amount of good medicine. Or again, like how even a small lamp, in but a single instant, can dispel a great darkness that has accumulated over a long span of time.

Verse: one who has not yet severed any cultivation-abandoned fault, upon abiding in the fruit, is guaranteed at most seven more returns. Explanation: among those abiding in a fruit, one who has not yet severed any cultivation-abandoned fault belonging to any stage is called a stream-enterer, guaranteed at most seven more returns of rebirth. The phrase seven returns indicates seven rounds of going and returning — seven rebirths each within the human and heavenly realms. The word at most indicates the maximum, since not every stream-enterer necessarily undergoes the full seven returns. All undefiled paths, collectively, are called the stream, since it is by this cause that one proceeds toward nirvāṇa. The word first indicates being the very first to attain this stream. What does this name refer to precisely? If it meant simply first attaining the path, it ought to apply to an eighth-existence being. If it meant first attaining a fruit in general, then someone already partially or fully free of desire, upon reaching analogy-knowledge regarding the path, ought also to be called a stream-enterer. In fact, this name refers to the first-attained fruit among those who attain every fruit in the complete, standard sequence. Once-returning and non-returning are not necessarily the first fruit attained by everyone, whereas stream-entry always is, hence it alone bears this name. Why does the name not apply to an eighth-existence being? Because it is only upon reaching analogy-knowledge regarding the path that one fully possesses both the undefiled path aiming toward the fruit and the undefiled paths of seeing and cultivation together. It is because one has fully attained the stream of direct realization that one is named stream-enterer — an eighth-existence being has not yet done so.

From this point onward, such a person, separately within the human realm, undergoes at most seven intermediate-existences and seven full existences; the same holds separately within the heavenly realm — twenty-eight in total, all being sets of seven, hence the expression at most seven rebirths, comparable to the seven excellent places and the seven-leafed tree. This is what the Vaibhāṣika masters teach. If this is so, why does a sūtra passage state that there is no possibility whatsoever for one who has perfected seeing to undergo an eighth existence? This sūtra's intent refers to a single realm specifically — if one insists on the most literal reading instead, there ought to be no intermediate-existence at all. If this is so, one of the upstream, peak-of-existence type ought likewise to have no possibility of an eighth rebirth within a single destiny — but that teaching is stated specifically with reference to the desire realm, so this fault does not apply. What proof is there for this? Scriptural or logical? By what is it proven that such a person undergoes seven rebirths within each realm separately, rather than a combined total of seven? Because a sūtra states seven in heaven, and seven among humans. The Kāśyapīya school's own sūtra explicitly and separately states seven rebirths within each realm respectively, and on this point one should not stubbornly insist otherwise. If one attains the fruit of stream-entry within the human realm, one will attain final nirvāṇa within the human realm; if attained within a heavenly realm, likewise there. Why does such a person never undergo an eighth existence? Because their continuum is guaranteed to reach full maturity by this point — this is simply the nature of how this kind of noble path unfolds, comparable to a seven-step snake or a fourth-day fever, each following its own fixed course. Moreover, such a person still retains the remaining seven bonds — two of the lower-portion bonds and all five of the upper-portion bonds — and although the noble path may manifest partway through this process, the residual force of past karma still sustains their continued existence.

By the seventh existence, if such a person happens to encounter a time when no buddha-dharma exists, they will attain the fruit of arhatship even while still a householder. Once having attained this fruit, they will certainly not remain a householder; by the natural law of things, they will spontaneously take on the form of a fully ordained monk. Other teachers say instead that such a person goes forth into some other path to become ordained. Why is such a person called one who possesses the dharma of never falling back into an unfortunate rebirth? Because they no longer generate or cultivate the karma that leads to such a fall; because they actively oppose whatever might generate or bring to fruition such karma; because their now-powerful wholesome roots firmly anchor their being; and because both their effort and their aspiration are now thoroughly pure. Anyone who still possesses karma definitely destined to lead to an unfortunate rebirth cannot even give rise to patience, let alone attain stream-entry. Hence a verse states: the foolish person, even for a small transgression, still falls into an unfortunate rebirth; the wise person, even for a great transgression, is nevertheless freed from suffering — just as a small lump of iron sinks in water, while a large iron bowl is able to float. The sūtras describe the stream-enterer as one who makes an end of suffering. On what basis is this name established? With reference to the fact that, once this final existence is reached, no further suffering follows. Alternatively, the end of suffering refers to nirvāṇa itself. But how can nirvāṇa be spoken of as something made? Because the path removes the obstruction to attaining it, it is loosely spoken of as making it, just as making empty space really means demolishing a pavilion. The remaining stages also have, in some cases, at most seven more rebirths, but this is not a fixed rule, and so it is not stated explicitly. Abhidharmakośa-śāstra of the Sarvāstivāda School, Fascicle Twenty-Three, [end].