The Ten Perceptions Begin

The ten perceptions are: the perception of impermanence, the perception of impermanence-as-suffering, the perception of suffering-as-non-self, the perception of death, the perception of impurity, the perception of loathing food, the perception that nothing in the whole world is delightful, the perception of severance, the perception of dispassion, and the perception of cessation. Such chapter-headings and their explanatory glosses, once grasped, call for full analysis. Question: why does this passage compose its treatise with reference to these ten perceptions first? Answer: this is simply what the author of this treatise intended, and he composed the treatise according to that very intention — so long as it does not contradict the characteristics of the dharmas involved, no objection should be raised. Some hold: this is done in order to elucidate the meaning of a certain sūtra passage — for a sūtra states that there are ten perceptions, the perception of impermanence and so on down to the perception of cessation; although the sūtra speaks in this way, it does not explain them at length, and this treatise now wishes to explain them, and it is for this reason that it is composed. Question: why does this passage speak only of ten perceptions? Answer: this question ought not even to be raised, since this is simply what the Buddha himself taught in his own sūtras. The Buddha, throughout his sūtras, spoke consistently of only ten perceptions, and the author of this treatise cannot add a single one to what the Buddha taught to make eleven, nor subtract a single one to make nine. Why so? Because the Buddha's own teaching admits of neither addition nor subtraction, and so cannot be added to or subtracted from — just as it admits of no increase, no decrease, no excess, no deficiency, no lack, and no surplus; and the very same holds of its being immeasurable and boundless. "Immeasurable" because its meaning is difficult to fathom; "boundless" because its wording is difficult to fully comprehend — just as the great ocean is immeasurable and boundless, immeasurable in its depth and boundless in its breadth.

Even if hundreds of thousands of myriads of great treatise-masters, each the equal of Śāriputra, were to compose hundreds of thousands of treatises on a mere two-line sūtra passage spoken by the Buddha, exhausting the full capacity of their own understanding in explaining it, they still could not exhaust its boundless measure — how much less, then, could they do so with something greater still? Question: setting aside the author of this treatise,

why did the World-Honored One himself speak of only ten perceptions? Answer: because, for the very beings he was teaching, the matter he intended to address was fully completed within just these ten. That is, whatever teaching the Buddha, the World-Honored One, ever gave, he always did so with a view to bringing to full completion precisely the task appropriate to the beings before him — stopping exactly there, neither adding nor subtracting anything further, just as a skilled physician, observing a patient, prescribes medicine exactly suited to the case, neither more nor less. The Buddha is just the same. Some hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the noble path, the preparatory practice for the noble path, and the fruit of the noble path — that is, speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death displays the noble path itself; speaking of the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful displays the preparatory practice for the noble path; and speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays the fruit of the noble path. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the noble path, its provisions, and its fruit — the correspondence here should be understood just as above. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display tranquility and insight, and their twofold fruit — that is, speaking of the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful displays tranquility; speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death displays insight; and speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays their shared twofold fruit. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display this shore, that shore, and the raft — that is, speaking of the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful displays this shore; speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays that shore; and speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death displays the raft. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the faults of the aggregates and the sense-elements, and the fruit of their own cessation and return — that is, speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self displays the fault of the aggregates in general; speaking of the perception of impurity and of loathing food displays the fault of the desire realm; speaking of the perception that nothing in the world is delightful displays the fault of the form realm; speaking of the perception of death displays the fault of the formless realm; and speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays the fruit of their own cessation and return.

Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display entering correctly determined liberation from birth, freedom from the defilement of all three realms, and the fruit of that path — that is, speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self displays entering correctly determined liberation from birth; speaking of the perception of impurity and of loathing food displays freedom from the defilement of the desire realm, since the desire realm has sexual craving and the craving for coarse food, and one attached to and habituated toward them cannot become free from the desire realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception that nothing in the world is delightful displays freedom from the defilement of the form realm, since the form realm possesses the most excellent joyful feeling and the most excellent pleasant feeling found anywhere in saṃsāra, together with the fourth dhyāna's own most excellent pliancy and bliss, and one infatuated with these cannot become free from the form realm's own defilement; and speaking of the perception of death displays freedom from the defilement of the formless realm, since the formless realm's own lifespan extends so vastly long that one who clings and holds fast to it cannot become free from the formless realm's own defilement.

Speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays that path's own fruit. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the proximate antidote for each specific obstruction it counteracts — that is, speaking of the perception of impermanence displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of conceit with respect to conditioned formations; speaking of the perception of impermanence-as-suffering displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of indolence; speaking of the perception of suffering-as-non-self displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of the view of self; speaking of the perception of impurity displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of craving for form;

speaking of the perception of loathing food displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of infatuation with fine food; speaking of the perception that nothing in the world is delightful displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of craving attachment to the world's own agreeable objects; speaking of the perception of death displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of arrogant complacency in relying on one's own lifespan; speaking of the perception of severance displays the proximate antidote for every obstruction that is itself contrary to the Dharma; speaking of the perception of dispassion displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of defiled attachment; and speaking of the perception of cessation displays the proximate antidote for the obstruction of one's own underlying basis. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to counteract the mistaken views held by non-Buddhist teachers — that is, various non-Buddhist teachers, with respect to the impermanent aggregates, mostly give rise to the view that they are permanent, and it is to counteract this that the perception of impermanence is taught; because they give rise to the view that the aggregates are permanent, they then conceive of them as pleasurable, and it is to counteract this that the perception of impermanence-as-suffering is taught; because they cling to the aggregates as pleasurable, they then conceive of a self within them, and it is to counteract this that the perception of suffering-as-non-self is taught; because they cling to the existence of a self, they then conceive of it as pure, and it is to counteract this that the perception of impurity and the perception of loathing food are taught; because they cling to the existence of purity, they then delight and cling to saṃsāra, and it is to counteract this that the perception that nothing in the world is delightful is taught; because they cling to saṃsāra, they then fail to seek nirvāṇa,

and it is to counteract this that the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation are taught; because they fail to seek nirvāṇa, they then cling dearly to their own lifespan, and it is to counteract this that the perception of death is taught. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the fault of the loathsome and repugnant, the fault of what is to be left behind, and the excellent quality gained by realizing freedom from these faults — that is, speaking of the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful displays the fault of the loathsome and repugnant; speaking of the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death displays the fault of what is to be left behind; and speaking of the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation displays the excellent quality gained by realizing freedom from these. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display temporary severing and final severing — that is, speaking of the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful displays temporary severing, while speaking of the remaining seven perceptions displays final severing. Just as there is temporary severing and final severing, so too there is severing with a residual shadow and severing without a residual shadow, severing with something left over and severing with nothing left over, severing with a lingering bond and severing without a lingering bond, severing that merely crushes the branches and leaves and severing that uproots the very root, severing that merely suppresses the manifest bond and severing that destroys the latent defilement itself. Others hold: the World-Honored One spoke of the ten perceptions in order to display the preparatory practice for becoming free from the defilement of all three realms, the path for becoming free from that defilement, and the actual freedom from that defilement — that is, speaking of the perception of impurity and of loathing food displays the preparatory practice for becoming free from the desire realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of impermanence displays the path for becoming free from the desire realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of severance displays actual freedom from the desire realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception that nothing in the world is delightful displays the preparatory practice for becoming free from the form realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of impermanence-as-suffering displays the path for becoming free from the form realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of dispassion displays actual freedom from the form realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of death displays the preparatory practice for becoming free from the formless realm's own defilement; speaking of the perception of suffering-as-non-self displays the path for becoming free from the formless realm's own defilement; and speaking of the perception of cessation displays actual freedom from the formless realm's own defilement.

As for the classification of these ten perceptions by realm: the perception of impurity, the perception of loathing food, and the perception that nothing in the world is delightful belong to the desire and form realms; the remaining seven belong to all three realms, and also to what lies outside the realms altogether.

As for ground: the perception of impurity and the perception of loathing food occur in ten grounds — namely, the desire realm, the meditative interval, the four dhyānas, and their four proximate-access grounds. The perception that nothing in the world is delightful occurs in seven grounds — namely, the desire realm, the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, and the four fundamental dhyānas. The remaining seven perceptions, when contaminated, occur in eleven grounds — namely, the desire realm, the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, the four fundamental dhyānas, and the four formless spheres; when uncontaminated, they occur in nine grounds — namely, the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, the four fundamental dhyānas, and the lower three formless spheres. As for basis: the perception of impurity, the perception of loathing food, and the perception that nothing in the world is delightful are based on the desire realm;

the remainder are based on all three realms.

As for aspect: the perception of impermanence takes the aspect of impermanence; the perception of impermanence-as-suffering takes the aspect of suffering; the perception of suffering-as-non-self takes the aspect of non-self; the perception of impurity takes the aspect of impurity; the perception of loathing food takes the aspect of the loathsome and repugnant; the perception that nothing in the world is delightful takes the aspect of the undelightful; the perception of death takes the aspect of death; the perception of severance takes the aspect of severance; the perception of dispassion takes the aspect of dispassion; and the perception of cessation takes the aspect of cessation. Some hold: the last three each take all four aspects of cessation, tranquility, excellence, and liberation together. Question: the perception of death, too, extends to the uncontaminated — how, then, can the noble path itself take the aspect of death? Answer: because death itself serves as its object, it is named "the perception of death," yet it still, in fact, takes the aspect of impermanence. Question: if so, what difference is there between the perception of death and the perception of impermanence? Some hold: the perception that observes conditioned formations' own ultimate, final impermanence is named the perception of death; the perception that observes conditioned formations' own moment-by-moment impermanence is named the perception of impermanence. Others hold: the perception that observes the impermanence of conditioned formations bound up with sentient appropriation is named the perception of death; the perception that observes the impermanence of conditioned formations both bound up with and free of sentient appropriation is named the perception of impermanence. Others hold:

that which operates within the domain of sentient beings is named the perception of death; that which operates within the domain of dharmas in general is named the perception of impermanence. Question: if the perception of loathing food takes the aspect of the loathsome and repugnant, then the perception of impurity, too, takes the aspect of the loathsome and repugnant — what difference is there between these two? Answer: the perception of impurity is loathing and repugnance directed at form,

while the perception of loathing food is loathing and repugnance directed at taste. Others hold: the perception of impurity serves as the antidote for sexual craving, while the perception of loathing food serves as the antidote for craving for food. Whoever holds that there is no noble path apart from the sixteen aspects maintains that the uncontaminated perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation each takes all four aspects of the truth of cessation together; whoever holds that there is a noble path apart from the sixteen aspects maintains that the uncontaminated perception of severance takes only the aspect of severance, and so on down to the uncontaminated perception of cessation taking only the aspect of cessation.

As for object: the contaminated perception of impermanence takes all three truths (suffering, origin, and the path) as its object; the uncontaminated version takes only the truth of suffering as its object. The contaminated perception of impermanence-as-suffering takes two truths (suffering and origin) as its object; the uncontaminated version takes only the truth of suffering as its object. The contaminated perception of suffering-as-non-self takes every dharma whatsoever as its object; the uncontaminated version takes only the truth of suffering as its object — yet the Buddha, in speaking here of these three perceptions, states only that they take the truth of suffering as their object, and nothing else. As for the perception of impurity: because it is drawn forth through the preparatory practice of the eye-consciousness, it takes the sense-sphere of visible form as its object. As for the perception of loathing food: because it loathes coarse, edible food, it takes the sense-spheres of smell, taste, and touch as its object; some hold that this perception, too, is drawn forth through the preparatory practice of the eye-consciousness, and takes only the sense-sphere of visible form as its object. As for the perception that nothing in the world is delightful: some hold that it takes only the desire realm as its object, since this perception is said to serve as the antidote for craving directed at the world's own agreeable objects, and such craving exists only in the desire realm; on this point, some hold that it takes only the world's own agreeable objects as its object, while others hold that it also takes the craving arisen with respect to those agreeable objects as its object. Question: if it takes only the desire realm as its object, why is it named "the perception that nothing in the whole world is delightful"? Answer: "whole" is of two kinds — first, an absolute totality; second, a partial totality — and this passage speaks of a partial totality, and so no fault arises. Others hold: this perception takes all three realms as its object, since it is precisely named "the perception that nothing in the whole world is delightful." Question: if so, why is this perception said to serve as the antidote for craving directed at the world's own agreeable objects, when such craving exists only in the desire realm? Answer: that sūtra passage speaks in this way precisely in order to display the perception's own initial arising, at the stage of preparatory practice —

once it has been repeatedly practiced to full completion, it is indeed capable of severing craving directed at the form and formless realms as well, and so no fault arises. As for the perception of death: some hold that it takes the very last instant's own life-faculty as its object; others hold that it takes the impermanence of that very last instant's own life-faculty as its object; others hold that it takes the five aggregates conascent with that very last instant's own life-faculty as its object; others hold that it takes the impermanence of the five aggregates conascent with that very last instant's own life-faculty as its object; others hold that it takes the life-faculty belonging to every class of homogeneous existence as its object; others hold that it takes the impermanence of the life-faculty belonging to every class of homogeneous existence as its object; others hold that it takes the five aggregates conascent with the life-faculty belonging to every class of homogeneous existence as its object; others hold that it takes the impermanence of the five aggregates conascent with the life-faculty belonging to every class of homogeneous existence as its object. According to this last account, it takes as its object the impermanence of the five aggregates conascent with the very last instant's own life-faculty. As for the perception of severance: it takes severance itself as its object. As for the perception of dispassion: it takes dispassion itself as its object. As for the perception of cessation: it takes cessation itself as its object. These last three perceptions each have their own specific distinctions in this way, yet all alike, in essence, take the truth of cessation — nirvāṇa itself — as their object.

As for mindfulness-foundation: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self are conjoined with all four mindfulness-foundations. The perception of impurity and of loathing food are conjoined with the body-mindfulness-foundation. As for the perception that nothing in the world is delightful: some hold it is conjoined with the body-mindfulness-foundation; others hold it is conjoined with the dharma-mindfulness-foundation. The perception of death, of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation are conjoined with the dharma-mindfulness-foundation.

As for knowledge: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death are associated with four kinds of knowledge — namely, dharma-knowledge, class-knowledge, the knowledge of suffering, and mundane wisdom. The perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful are associated with a single kind of knowledge — namely, mundane wisdom. The perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation are associated with four kinds of knowledge — namely, dharma-knowledge, class-knowledge, the knowledge of cessation, and mundane wisdom. As for concentration:

the uncontaminated perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of death are associated with the wishlessness-concentration; the uncontaminated perception of suffering-as-non-self is associated with the emptiness-concentration; the uncontaminated perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation are associated with the signlessness-concentration. The perception of impurity, of loathing food, that nothing in the world is delightful, and the contaminated versions of the remaining seven perceptions, are none of them associated with any concentration at all. As for faculty: stated generally, all ten are associated with three faculties — namely, the happiness-faculty, the joy-faculty, and the equanimity-faculty. As for time-period: all ten fall within one of the three time-periods. As for the time-period taken as their own object: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self take all three time-periods as their object. The perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful, when directed at the past, take the past as their object; when directed at the present, take the present as their object; when directed at the future, take the future as their object if that future dharma is one that will indeed arise, and take all three time-periods as their object if it is one that will never arise at all. As for the perception of death: some hold it takes all three time-periods as its object; others hold it takes only the future as its object. The perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation take what lies outside the three time-periods as their object.

As for moral quality: all ten are wholesome. As for the moral quality taken as their own object: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of impurity take wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral dharmas as their object; the perception of loathing food takes only neutral dharmas as its object; as for the perception that nothing in the world is delightful, some hold it takes all three moral qualities as its object, while others hold it takes only unwholesome and neutral dharmas as its object; as for the perception of death, some hold it takes only neutral dharmas as its object, while others hold it takes all three moral qualities as its object; the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation take only wholesome dharmas as their object. As for whether they are fettered to the three realms or unfettered: the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful are fettered to the desire and form realms; the remainder are fettered to all three realms, and also unfettered. As for the realm-status taken as their own object: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, and of death take dharmas fettered to all three realms as their object; the perception of impurity and of loathing food take dharmas fettered to the desire realm as their object; as for the perception that nothing in the world is delightful, some hold it takes the desire realm as its object, since this perception is said to serve as the antidote for craving directed at agreeable objects, and such craving exists only in the desire realm; others hold it takes all three realms as its object, since it is precisely named "the perception that nothing in the whole world is delightful" — according to this latter account, the first position stated should be understood as the sound one. The perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation take what is unfettered as their object.

As for trainee-status: the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful belong exclusively to neither trainee nor non-trainee; the remainder extend across all three categories — trainee, non-trainee, and neither. As for the trainee-status taken as their own object: all ten take only what belongs to neither trainee nor non-trainee as their object.

As for abandonment-category: the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful are exclusively abandoned by cultivation; the remainder extend across both abandonment by cultivation and non-abandonment. As for the abandonment-category taken as their own object: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self

take dharmas abandoned by seeing and by cultivation alike as their object. The perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful take dharmas abandoned by cultivation as their object. As for the perception of death: some hold it takes dharmas abandoned by cultivation as its object, while others hold it takes dharmas abandoned by seeing and by cultivation alike as its object. The perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation take what is unabandoned as their object.

As for whether they take a name or a meaning as their object: the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, and of suffering-as-non-self take both names and meanings as their object alike. As for the perception of death: some hold —

it takes only a meaning as its object; others hold it takes both names and meanings alike. The remaining six perceptions take only a meaning as their object.

As for whether they take their own or another's mental continuum as their object: the first seven perceptions take both their own and another's continuum as their object; the last three take what is not a continuum at all as their object.

As for whether they are attained through preparatory practice, through freedom from defilement, or through birth: all ten are attained through preparatory practice and through freedom from defilement, but never through birth.

As for whether they are contaminated or uncontaminated: the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and that nothing in the world is delightful are exclusively contaminated; the remainder may be either contaminated or uncontaminated. The Foreign Masters hold that the perception of death is exclusively contaminated. Why so? Because the noble path never operates by taking the aspect "I too shall die." The verdict: it should be said that this perception may be either contaminated or uncontaminated — for although, at the stage of its preparatory practice, it does indeed take the aspect "I too, and others, shall die," once it reaches full completion it comes, with respect to that very same object, to operate instead by taking the aspect of impermanence. As for the contaminated or uncontaminated status of what they take as their object: the first seven perceptions take a contaminated dharma as their object; the last three take an uncontaminated dharma as their object. Question: of these ten perceptions, how many are contaminated yet take an uncontaminated object, and how many are uncontaminated yet take a contaminated object?

How many are contaminated and take a contaminated object, and how many are uncontaminated and take an uncontaminated object? Answer: a portion of three perceptions are contaminated yet take an uncontaminated object; a portion of four perceptions are uncontaminated yet take a contaminated object; all of three perceptions, together with a portion of four, are contaminated and take a contaminated object; and a portion of three perceptions are uncontaminated and take an uncontaminated object. Question: of these ten perceptions, how many are neither contaminated, nor fail to take a contaminated object — and so on, forming a full tetralemma, the second alternative above becoming this tetralemma's first, the first becoming its second, the fourth becoming its third, and the third becoming its fourth. As for whether they are conditioned or unconditioned: all ten are conditioned. As for the conditioned or unconditioned status of what they take as their object: the first seven perceptions take a conditioned dharma as their object; the last three take an unconditioned dharma as their object. Question: of these ten perceptions, how many are abandoned in their own intrinsic nature but not in their object; how many are abandoned in their object but not in their own intrinsic nature; how many are abandoned both in their own intrinsic nature and in their object; and how many are abandoned in neither? Answer: a portion of three perceptions are abandoned in their own intrinsic nature but not in their object; a portion of four perceptions are abandoned in their object but not in their own intrinsic nature; all of three perceptions, together with a portion of four, are abandoned in both; and a portion of three perceptions are abandoned in neither. Question: of these ten perceptions, how many are not abandoned in their own intrinsic nature, and not un-abandoned in their object — and so on, forming a full tetralemma, the second alternative above becoming this tetralemma's first, the first becoming its second, the fourth becoming its third, and the third becoming its fourth.

Question: of these ten perceptions, how many are themselves the leading, actively-turned perception, and how many merely follow along with it? Answer: three are the leading, actively-turned perception — namely, the perception of impurity, of loathing food, and of death; the remaining seven merely follow along. Question: if so, when a given perception is actively turned, how many others follow along with it? Answer: when the perception of impurity or the perception of loathing food is actively turned, four other perceptions each follow along with it — namely, the perception that nothing in the world is delightful, together with the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation. When the perception of death is actively turned,

seven other perceptions follow along with it — namely, the perception of impermanence, of impermanence-as-suffering, of suffering-as-non-self, that nothing in the world is delightful,

together with the perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation. How is it that, when the perception of impurity is actively turned, four other perceptions follow along with it? This refers to a practitioner who, upon giving rise to the perception of impurity, first goes to a charnel ground to contemplate the marks of impurity — namely, a corpse discolored and livid, swollen and bloated, festering and putrid; or one being devoured by worms and beasts, its flesh and blood strewn in disarray, its limbs and joints scattered apart; or one whose flesh has entirely decayed, its sinews alone still holding the bones together, observing only the skeleton's own sequential linkage. Having grasped this mark, he then withdraws to some nearby place, closes his eyes, and contemplates it — if it appears entirely clear and distinct before him, this is good; if it remains unclear, he should go back and observe it once more. In this way, having thoroughly contemplated the mark of impurity, he swiftly returns to his own dwelling, washes his feet, and arranges his seat; sitting cross-legged, he calms and softens his body and mind, making his body and mind pliant, his body and mind capable, his body and mind free of feverish agitation, his body and mind free of the hindrances. Once he has thus freed his body and mind from every hindrance, he takes up the external mark previously grasped and applies it to his own body,

thinking: just as that corpse is, so too is this body of mine; and just as this body of mine is, so too is that corpse — that is, my own body possesses every one of those same marks of impurity just described. The foot-bone rests upon the ankle-bone; the ankle-bone rests upon the shin-bone; the shin-bone rests upon the knee-bone; the knee-bone rests upon the thigh-bone; the thigh-bone rests upon the hip-bone; the hip-bone rests upon the pelvic bone; the pelvic bone rests upon the spinal bone; and from the spinal bone, the rib bones connect to either side. Likewise, the hand-bone rests upon the elbow-bone; the elbow-bone rests upon the forearm-bone;

the forearm-bone rests upon the shoulder-bone; the shoulder-bone rests upon the spinal bone; and, again, from the spinal bone, the neck-bone rests upon it; the neck-bone rests upon the jaw-ring; the jaw-ring rests upon the row of teeth, above which sits the skull — such is the sequential order of this body's own skeletal chain.

Having thoroughly grasped this mark, he fixes his mindfulness between his eyebrows. His own preference, however, may lean toward the expanded or the abbreviated version. If he prefers the abbreviated version, he proceeds directly from the point between his eyebrows into the body-mindfulness-foundation; from the body-mindfulness-foundation into the feeling-mindfulness-foundation; from the feeling-mindfulness-foundation into the mind-mindfulness-foundation; and from the mind-mindfulness-foundation into the dharma-mindfulness-foundation. If he prefers the expanded version, he begins from the point between his eyebrows and again contemplates the skull, the row of teeth, and the jaw-ring, observing in sequence clear down to the foot-bones. Next, through the power of his own resolve-attention, he causes the skeletal chain he is observing to gradually increase and expand, filling first a single bed, then a single room, a single courtyard, a single monastery, a single village, a single field, a single city, a single kingdom, and so on clear to the very shores of the great ocean — the whole earth entirely covered over on every side with white bones. Then, again through the power of his own resolve-attention, he gradually contracts this vision, relinquishing the whole earth's own bones to observe a single kingdom instead; relinquishing the kingdom to observe a single city; and so on, clear down to relinquishing a single room to observe a single bed. He then relinquishes the entire skeletal mark belonging to that single bed, and observes only his own body's own bones — that is, observing the foot-bones, next the ankle-bones, next the shin-bones, and so on clear to finally observing the skull-bone, then relinquishing the skull-bone and fixing his mindfulness once more between his eyebrows. Once this yoga practitioner has attained such mastery over both the expanded and abbreviated versions, this is called the completion of the contemplation of impurity. This contemplation of impurity, however, admits of "limited in object" apart from "limited in mastery," and a full tetralemma should be formed. There is a case of being limited in object but not limited in mastery — namely, one who contemplates only his own body's own skeletal mark, yet is capable of entering and exiting that contemplation again and again at will. There is a case of being limited in mastery but not limited in object — namely, one capable of contemplating the whole earth's own skeletal mark, yet incapable of entering and exiting that contemplation again and again at will. There is a case of being limited both in mastery and in object — namely, one who contemplates only his own body's own skeletal mark, and is likewise incapable of entering and exiting that contemplation again and again at will. There is a case of being limited in neither mastery nor object — namely, one capable of contemplating the whole earth's own skeletal mark,

and is likewise capable of entering and exiting that contemplation again and again at will. Furthermore, this contemplation of impurity likewise admits of "immeasurable in object" apart from "immeasurable in mastery," and a full tetralemma should likewise be formed — the second alternative above becoming this tetralemma's first, the first becoming its second, the fourth becoming its third, and the third becoming its fourth. Once this yoga practitioner has thus contemplated the mark of impurity, he reflects: "How could the very formations of birth-and-death possibly be delighted in?" — and, at that very moment, he ceases entirely to crave and delight in the formations of the desire, form, and formless realms alike. Through this, his own previously-cultivated perception that nothing in the world is delightful comes to full completion; and, because he no longer delights in birth-and-death, he then comes to delight in nirvāṇa instead — and it is through this very cause and condition that his own previously-cultivated perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation likewise all come to full completion. This, then, is how, when the perception of impurity is actively turned, four other perceptions follow along with it. How is it that, when the perception of loathing food is actively turned, four other perceptions follow along with it? This refers to a practitioner who, upon giving rise to the perception of loathing food, contemplates the food in his hand or bowl, asking from what it was made — and knows it was made from grain and the like. He then contemplates whence that grain itself came — and knows it came from the particular seed sown in some field. He then contemplates by what agency that very seed was made to grow — and knows it was through various kinds of mud, soil, and manure. Having thus contemplated, he then reflects: "This food, passed on through successive stages, arose from what is impure, and will, in turn, pass on through successive stages to produce what is impure once again — what wise person could possibly crave and cling to it?" Furthermore, such a practitioner, whether he habitually begs for food or eats within the monastic assembly, proceeds as follows. If he habitually begs for food: at dawn, while rinsing his mouth and chewing his tooth-cleaning twig, he forms the perception of urine with respect to the water, and the perception of finger-bones with respect to the twig; putting on his robe and taking up his bowl to go into the village, he forms the perception of moist human skin with respect to his robe, the perception of human intestines with respect to his sash, the perception of a skull with respect to his bowl, and the perception of a shin-bone with respect to his walking staff; with respect to the pebbles and stones he sees along the road, he forms the perception of skeletal remains; upon reaching the village and seeing its city walls, he forms the perception of graves and tombs; seeing the men and women there, he forms the perception of skeletons. When begging for food: if he receives a cake, he forms the perception of a human belly; if he receives parched grain, he forms the perception of powdered bone; if he receives salt, he forms the perception of human teeth; if he receives cooked rice, he forms the perception of maggots; if he receives vegetables, he forms the perception of human hair; if he receives broth, he forms the perception of pus and discharge; if he receives curdled milk, he forms the perception of human brain matter; if he receives ghee or honey, he forms the perception of human fat and grease; if he receives fish or meat, he forms the perception of human flesh; if he receives any drink, he forms the perception of human blood; and if he receives sweet cakes and the like, he forms the perception of dried excrement. As for one who eats within the monastic assembly: if he receives clean straw for a seat, he forms the perception of a dead person's hair; with respect to the bed or seat he occupies, he forms the perception of a heap of bones; and with respect to whatever food or drink he receives, he forms the perception of impurity — all just as described above. Question: why does the practitioner form the perception of impurity with respect to food and drink and the like? Answer: he reflects thus: "Ever since beginningless birth-and-death, it is precisely because I have formed the perception of purity with respect to what is impure that I have wandered through the five destinies, undergoing every manner of suffering and affliction — and, wishing now to turn away from this and head instead toward the bliss of nirvāṇa, I therefore contemplate these things as impure." Furthermore, that practitioner also reflects: "Lest I give rise to the perception of purity with respect to food and drink, thereby increasing my own craving mind and obstructing the noble path" — it is for this reason that he forms the perception of impurity with respect to food and drink, since, through this perception of impurity, he becomes able to grow weary of and turn away from it. Once this yoga practitioner has thus given rise to the perception of loathing with respect to food, he reflects: "How could the very formations of birth-and-death possibly be delighted in?" — and thereupon grows weary of the formations of all three realms alike. Through this, his own previously-cultivated perception that nothing in the world is delightful comes to full completion; and, because he grows weary of birth-and-death, he then comes to delight in nirvāṇa instead — and it is through this very cause and condition that his own previously-cultivated perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation likewise all come to full completion. This, then, is how, when the perception of loathing food is actively turned, four other perceptions follow along with it. How is it that, when the perception of death is actively turned, seven other perceptions follow along with it? This refers to a practitioner who, upon giving rise to the perception of death, observes how every dharma arises and ceases, moment by moment. In springtime, he sees the various trees and plants putting forth flowers and leaves, fresh and flourishing, crimson and deep blue like some excellent jewel's own color; the rivers and ponds' own moisture gradually filling to abundance, the fish and birds calling out in noisy play — and he reflects: "Now the external things are arising." Entering the village, he sees the men and women there singing, dancing, leaping about, eating and drinking amid joyous celebration, and, approaching, asks them: "Why is this happening?" They answer: "In this place, a son or a daughter has just been born" — and he reflects: "Now the internal dharmas, too, are arising." Then, in summertime, he sees the various trees and plants, their branches and twigs standing dense and crowded, their flowers and leaves lush and abundant;

the rivers and ponds overflowing, their waves churning and their foam and driftwood beating against the banks — and he reflects: "These external dharmas have now reached their full flourishing." Entering the village, he sees the men and women there beating drums, blowing conch-shells, singing, dancing, and laughing joyfully, carriages and horses crowded together in confusion, and, approaching, asks them: "Why is this happening?" They answer: "Here, a wedding is taking place" — and he reflects: "These internal dharmas, too, have now reached their full, vigorous maturity."

Then, in autumn, he sees the various grasses and trees, scorched by the autumn sun and buffeted by the cool wind, their green color entirely faded, their leaves all turned yellow and withered; the rivers and ponds' own flowing water gradually shrinking and receding — and he reflects: "These external things have now grown withered and decayed." Entering the village, he sees the men and women there, their hair turned white, their faces wrinkled, walking with the aid of a staff, their bodies bent and stooped, coughing and gasping for breath — and he reflects: "These internal dharmas, too, have now grown old and decayed." Then, in winter, he sees the various grasses and trees, buffeted by frost and wind, their leaves all fallen to the ground, broken and withered to death; the rivers and ponds' own flowing water gradually exhausted entirely, dried up and cracked — and he reflects: "These external dharmas have now ceased once again." Entering the village, he sees the men and women there, their hair disheveled, leaping and thrashing, beating their breasts, wailing and crying out, writhing upon the ground, and, approaching, asks them: "Why is this happening?" They answer: "Here, a father or mother has died" — and he reflects: "These internal dharmas, too, have now ceased once again." Having thus thoroughly grasped the marks of impermanence, both external and internal, he returns to his own dwelling, washes his feet, and arranges his seat; sitting cross-legged, he calms and softens his body and mind, making his body and mind pliant, his body and mind capable, his body and mind free of feverish agitation, his body and mind free of the hindrances. Once he has thus freed his body and mind from every hindrance, he settles his mind inwardly and cultivates the perception of death — that is, just as he had observed the various marks of impermanence externally, he now observes, with respect to his own internal body, how the aggregates belonging to a single lifetime arise at the moment of taking on the bond of rebirth, and cease at the moment of old age and death. He then observes how, within that single lifetime, the aggregates differ across each of its various stages, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single stage how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later.

He then observes how, within that single stage, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent years, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single year how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single year, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent seasons, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single season how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single season, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent months, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single month how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single month, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent day-and-nights, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single day-and-night how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single day-and-night, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent muhūrtas, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single muhūrta how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single muhūrta, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent lavas, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single lava how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single lava, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent tatkṣaṇas, and, setting aside the rest, observes with respect to a single tatkṣaṇa how its own aggregates arise earlier and cease later. He then observes how, within that single tatkṣaṇa, its aggregates differ across each of its constituent instants — and, since the instants are by far the most numerous of all, he gradually contracts his observation of them, until he observes the aggregates arising within two instants and ceasing within two instants. This, then, is called the preparatory practice for the contemplation of arising-and-ceasing reaching its own full completion. Immediately following this, he becomes capable of observing the aggregates arising within a single instant and ceasing within a single instant — this, then, is called the completion of the contemplation of arising-and-ceasing, and it is at this very moment that the perception of death itself is said to reach full completion, since the ceasing of any of these stages is itself precisely death. Once this practitioner has thus truthfully observed the aggregates' own arising and ceasing, he reflects: "The World-Honored One's own teaching that all conditioned formations are impermanent is indeed a wholesome teaching, since arising-and-ceasing is itself precisely impermanence" — and it is thus that, when the perception of death is actively turned in this practitioner, his own previously-cultivated perceptions of impermanence all come to full completion. The practitioner further observes how, within the aggregates' own continuous succession, an earlier instant's aggregates, being pressed upon by a later instant's aggregates, no sooner arise than they cease. Having thus observed, he reflects: "The World-Honored One's own teaching that what is impermanent is therefore suffering is indeed a wholesome teaching, since being pressed upon is itself precisely suffering" — and it is thus that, when the perception of death is actively turned in this practitioner, his own previously-cultivated perception of impermanence-as-suffering comes to full completion. The practitioner further observes how, the very instant an earlier instant's aggregates cease, a later instant's aggregates arise — and, even supposing that the earlier aggregates could think, "let me not cease now," or the later aggregates could think, "let me not arise now," neither would have any mastery whatsoever over what it wished, since the earlier aggregates, pressed upon from behind, must necessarily cease, and the later aggregates, drawn forward from in front, must necessarily arise. Having thus observed, he reflects: "The World-Honored One's own teaching of the perception of suffering-as-non-self is indeed a wholesome teaching, since having no mastery over oneself is itself precisely non-self" — and it is thus that, when the perception of death is actively turned in this practitioner, his own previously-cultivated perception of suffering-as-non-self comes to full completion. The practitioner further observes how, because the arising and ceasing of conditioned formations lies entirely beyond his own mastery, he ceases to give rise to any craving or delight within this mere heap of empty formations — and, through this, he ceases to give rise to any delight or attachment toward the formations of all three realms alike. It is thus that, when the perception of death is actively turned, his own previously-cultivated perception that nothing in the world is delightful comes to full completion; and, having thus ceased to delight and cling to birth-and-death, this practitioner then comes to delight in nirvāṇa instead — and it is thus that, when the perception of death is actively turned, his own previously-cultivated perception of severance, of dispassion, and of cessation likewise all come to full completion. It is for this reason that it is said that, when the perception of death is actively turned, seven other perceptions follow along with it. Question: when cultivating these various perceptions, there is both a resolve-attention and a true-reality attention — since the resolve-attention's own object of contemplation is not actually real, why is this not itself a distorted view? Answer: because the practitioner himself knows that it is not actually real, and so does not give rise to any genuine grasping at it as real, it is therefore not a distorted view. Question: if he knows it is not real, why does he still practice it? Answer: it must be practiced precisely in order to subdue the defilements.

Question: if this is not actually real, how can it be capable of subduing the defilements? Answer: it is precisely by forming that very perception that one becomes capable of suppressing them — just as, when one forms the perception of another's wife as one's own mother, no craving or defiled attachment arises toward her; when one forms the perception of an enemy as a dear friend, no anger or hatred arises toward him; and when one forms the perception of an inferior person as one worthy of reverence, no arrogance or conceit arises toward him. The very same holds here as well, and it is for this reason that such contemplation must be undertaken.