Mapping the Five Destinies

By which level of concentration are the five aggregates, the five aggregates of attachment, the five destinies, the five desirable sense-objects, and the five precepts of training eliminated? Answer: the aggregate of form and the aggregate of attachment to form are eliminated by the four dhyānas or the stage of proximate access; the four remaining aggregates, the four remaining aggregates of attachment, and the destiny of the gods are eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds or the stage of proximate access; the remaining four destinies, the five desirable sense-objects, and the five precepts of training are eliminated by the stage of proximate access.

Here, the five aggregates and the five aggregates of attachment are explained at length in the Ten-Gateway Nyāsa. The aggregate of form is fettered to five grounds, or is unfettered; the aggregate of attachment to form is fettered only to five grounds — both are eliminated by the four dhyānas or the stage of proximate access. That fettered to the desire realm is eliminated by the stage of proximate access; and so on clear through that fettered to the fourth dhyāna, which is eliminated by the four dhyānas' own stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, or the proximate-access ground of the sphere of infinite space. As for the concentration spoken of in this passage, some hold that it refers to the uncontaminated alone; others hold that it refers to both the contaminated and uncontaminated, to be distinguished exactly as explained above. As for the "elimination" spoken of, if it refers to generic-type elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, and the four upper proximate-access grounds, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the aggregate of form and the aggregate of attachment to form fettered to the desire realm clear through the fourth dhyāna. If it refers to final elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, and the proximate-access ground of the sphere of infinite space, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes only the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the aggregate of form and the aggregate of attachment to form fettered to the fourth dhyāna. It is for this reason that it is said that they are eliminated by the four dhyānas or the stage of proximate access. The four remaining aggregates are fettered to all nine grounds, or are unfettered; the four remaining aggregates of attachment are fettered to all nine grounds.

Both are eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds or the stage of proximate access. That fettered to the desire realm is eliminated by the stage of proximate access; and so on clear through that fettered to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, which is eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds' own stage of proximate access and the meditative interval. As for the concentration spoken of in this passage, some hold that it refers to the uncontaminated alone; others hold that it refers to both the contaminated and uncontaminated, to be distinguished exactly as explained above. As for the "elimination" spoken of, if it refers to generic-type elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, and the seven upper proximate-access grounds, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the four remaining aggregates and their aggregates of attachment fettered to the desire realm clear through the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. If it refers to final elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access and the meditative interval, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes only the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the four remaining aggregates and their aggregates of attachment fettered to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. It is for this reason that it is said that they are eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds or the stage of proximate access.

The five destinies are the destiny of naraka, of the animal, of the ghost, of the human, and of the god. Question: why is this treatise composed? Answer: in order to elucidate the meaning of a sūtra passage — for a sūtra states that there are five destinies, namely, the destiny of hell, and so on clear through the destiny of the god; although the sūtra speaks in this way, it does not explain the matter at length, and since the sūtra serves as the very foundation this treatise relies upon, what it leaves unexplained ought now to be explained, and it is for this reason that this treatise is composed. Question: what is the very nature of a destiny — is it neutral, or does it span all three moral qualities? If it is neutral, then how is the Prakaraṇapāda's own statement to be reconciled, where it says,

"the five destinies are that upon which every latent defilement is pervasively increased"? And if it does span all three moral qualities, then how do the destinies not become mixed and confused with one another — for, on that reading, the hell-destiny would possess the karmic defilements belonging clear up through the Heaven of Controlling Others' Emanations, and the Heaven of Controlling Others' Emanations would possess the karmic defilements belonging clear down to the hell-destiny? Answer: it should be said that a destiny's own nature is exclusively neutral-and-unobstructed. Question: if so, then the destinies would indeed not become mixed and confused, but how is the Prakaraṇapāda's own statement then to be reconciled? Answer: that passage ought properly to say that the four lower destinies are pervasively increased by the pervasively-operating latent defilements of the desire realm and by those abandoned through cultivation, while the destiny of the god is pervasively increased by the pervasively-operating latent defilements of all three realms and by those abandoned through cultivation — and its not stating the matter in this way should be understood as a scribal error on the part of whoever recited it. Others hold: that treatise speaks generally of the retinue belonging to the five destinies — that is, the mind associated with the five categories of affliction at the very moment of taking on the bond of rebirth, since that mind is indeed pervasively increased by every latent defilement. Others hold: a destiny's own nature spans the wholesome, the defiled, and the neutral. Question: if so, then the Prakaraṇapāda's own statement would indeed be reconciled — but how, then, do the destinies not become mixed and confused with one another? Answer: if considered in terms of possession, there is indeed a kind of mixing; but if considered in terms of actual manifestation, there is no mixing at all — that is, the hell-destiny both possesses and actually manifests the karmic defilement belonging to the hell-destiny, while it possesses without actually manifesting the karmic defilement belonging clear up through the Heaven of Controlling Others' Emanations; and the Heaven of Controlling Others' Emanations both possesses and actually manifests the karmic defilement belonging to that heaven, while it possesses without actually manifesting the karmic defilement belonging clear down to the hell-destiny — and it is for this reason that the destinies suffer no fault of mixing and confusion. The verdict: it should be said that a destiny's own nature is exclusively neutral-and-unobstructed. How is this known to be so? As the Venerable Śāriputra states in a certain sūtra: "when the contaminants belonging to hell manifest before one, and one performs and augments the karma that conforms to the experience of hell, then, because one's own body, speech, and mind have become crooked, filthy, and turbid, one undergoes, within naraka, the ripening of the five aggregates — and it is once this ripening has arisen that one is called a hell-being; apart from these five aggregates, no such hell-being can be found at all" — and the very same holds, clear through, for the destiny of the god as well. It is by this that one knows a destiny's own nature is exclusively neutral-and-unobstructed. Question: now that it is known that a destiny's own nature is exclusively neutral-and-unobstructed, is it, within that nature, exclusively a ripened result, or does it also extend to nurtured, growth-derived matter? If it is exclusively a ripened result, then how is the Prakaraṇapāda's own statement to be reconciled, where it says that the five destinies subsume the five aggregates, the twelve sense-spheres, and the eighteen elements,

since the sense-sphere of sound and the element of sound are not themselves ripened results? And if it does extend to nurtured, growth-derived matter, then a destiny's own nature would become confused, since even within the human destiny one is capable of drawing forth form-realm nurtured growth of the faculties and the great elements. Answer: it should be said that the very nature of every destiny is exclusively a ripened result. Question: how is the Prakaraṇapāda's own statement then to be reconciled? Answer: that passage ought properly to say that the five destinies subsume the five aggregates, and only a portion of the eleven sense-spheres and seventeen elements — and its not stating the matter in this way should be understood as a scribal error on the part of whoever recited it. Others hold: that treatise speaks generally of the retinue belonging to the five destinies, which draws forth the karma of the five destinies and is also capable of guarding and protecting it, and is not speaking of the destinies alone, and so no fault arises. Since, however, a difference in realm is what distinguishes one affliction from another, while a difference in the aggregates of ripening is what distinguishes one destiny from another, it follows that a destiny's own nature is exclusively a ripened result. Question: why is it called a "destiny"? What does "destiny" mean? Answer: the meaning of "going toward" is the meaning of "destiny" — it is that place which every sentient being must go toward, must be born into, and take on the bond of rebirth within, and it is for this reason that it is called a destiny. Having now explained the destinies in general, their own individual distinguishing marks shall now be explained. What is meant by the naraka-destiny? Answer: it is the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion among all the beings of naraka, attained by dependence, by substance, and by place, together with the neutral-and-unobstructed form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness of a being already born in naraka — this is called the naraka-destiny. Here, the phrase "the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion" displays that shared class-nature itself; the phrase "attained by dependence, by substance, and by place" displays the attainment of that element, aggregate, and sense-sphere; and the phrase "the neutral-and-unobstructed form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness of a being already born in naraka" displays that its own essence is a ripened result, and nothing else.

Question: why is this destiny named naraka? Answer: it is because it is the very place naraka-beings go toward — since it belongs to those called naraka-beings, it is named naraka; and, because the beings there have no delight, no affection, no relish, no benefit, and no joy or happiness whatsoever, it is named naraka. Others hold: it is because, having previously performed and augmented an overwhelmingly violent and evil bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct, one goes there, is born there, and there continues one's own succession of existence, that it is named naraka. Others hold: the name "naraka" is a mere conventional designation, a mere conventional notion, a name that is posited, a notion that is posited — every name and notion is established however one wishes, and need not necessarily correspond to its own meaning. Others hold: that destiny is named naraka because of its own utter lowliness, since there is nothing among the five destinies as lowly as that destiny. Others hold: that destiny is named naraka because of its own headlong plunging downward, as a verse states:

"Headlong they plunge into hell, / feet above and head below, / for having slandered the sages / who, loving stillness, practiced austerities." Others hold: "naraka" means "person," and "ka" means "evil" — evil persons are born in that place, and so it is named naraka. Others hold: "laka" means "delightful," and "na" is a negation — since that place is not delightful, it is named naraka. Others hold: "laka" means "joy and happiness,"

and "na" means "destruction" — since that place destroys joy and happiness, it is named naraka. Others hold: "laka" means "refuge," and "na" is a negation — since the beings of that place, oppressed by heavy suffering, have no refuge, it is named naraka. Others hold: "laka" means "rescue,"

and "na" is a negation — since the beings of that place, oppressed by every manner of suffering, have no one to rescue them, it is named naraka. Question: why is the lowest and greatest of these destinies named Avīci ("without interval")? Answer: this, too, is a mere conventional designation, a mere conventional notion, a name that is posited, a notion that is posited — every name and notion is established however one wishes, and need not necessarily correspond to its own meaning. That place is sometimes named "the body pierced by a hundred nails," sometimes "the place touched by six sufferings," sometimes "experiencing suffering by oneself alone," and sometimes "Avīci" — although there is, in fact, some interval there, it is only conventionally spoken of as "without interval." Others hold: that place is named Avīci because one there constantly undergoes suffering, with no interval of joy or happiness at all. Question: but do the other hells not also have singing, dancing, food and drink, and the experience of a joyful ripened result — and is it not for this very reason that they are not named "without interval"? Answer: although the other hells do lack any joy or happiness as a ripened result, they do have joy and happiness as an outflow result — as the Prajñaptiśāstra states, in the Reviving Hell there is, at certain times, a cool wind that blows, causing flesh and blood to regenerate, and, at certain times, a voice cries out, "revive!" — and the beings there then suddenly come back to life; it is only at the very moment their flesh and blood regenerate, and at the moment of reviving, that they briefly experience some joy and happiness, interspersed among their suffering, and it is for this reason that this hell is not named "without interval."

Others hold: it is named "without interval" because so many beings, having committed evil karma, are continuously reborn there, filling up that entire place without any interval or gap between them. The verdict: this account should not be given, since many more beings are reborn in the other hells than in the Avīci hell — why so? Because only those who have performed and augmented the very highest grade of bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct are reborn in that place, and beings who have performed and augmented the highest grade of evil karma sufficient to be reborn there are few, whereas those who have performed and augmented a middling or lower grade of evil karma, sufficient only for the other hells, are many — just as those who have performed and augmented the highest grade of wholesome karma sufficient to be reborn at the peak of existence are few, whereas those who have performed and augmented a middling or lower grade of wholesome karma, sufficient only for other places, are many. It should rather be said that, through performing and augmenting an overwhelmingly powerful unwholesome karma,

one is reborn there with a body of enormous, vast size — and, since each and every being there occupies so much space, there is no interval or gap remaining between them, and it is for this reason that it is named "without interval." Question: where are the hells located? Answer: for the most part, they lie beneath this very Jambudvīpa. How are they arranged? Answer: some hold: forty thousand yojanas beneath this continent lies the very bottom of the Avīci hell; the Avīci hell itself measures twenty thousand yojanas in both breadth and height. Immediately above it, within the next nineteen thousand yojanas, the remaining seven hells are arranged — that is, immediately above lies the Hell of Extreme Heat; above that, the Hell of Heat; above that, the Hell of Great Wailing; above that, the Hell of Wailing; above that, the Hell of Crushing Together; above that, the Hell of the Black Line; and above that, the Reviving Hell — each of these seven hells measures ten thousand yojanas in breadth. Above that, there remain a thousand yojanas of which five hundred yojanas are white clay, and five hundred yojanas are mud. Others hold: forty thousand yojanas beneath this continent lies the Avīci hell, which itself measures twenty thousand yojanas in both breadth and height.

Immediately above it, within thirty-five thousand yojanas, the remaining seven hells are arranged, each measuring five thousand yojanas in both breadth and height. Above that, there remain five thousand yojanas, of which a thousand yojanas are blue-green soil, a thousand yojanas are yellow soil, a thousand yojanas are red soil, a thousand yojanas are white soil, five hundred yojanas are white clay, and five hundred yojanas are mud. Others hold: the Avīci hell lies at the very center, with the remaining seven hells encircling it all around, just as a cluster of villages might surround a great city today. Question: if so, then how is the Prajñaptiśāstra's own statement to be reconciled, where it says that Jambudvīpa measures six thousand and three and a half yojanas in circumference — since each and every hell is itself of such vast extent, how could this continent possibly contain them all beneath it? As a verse states:

"The burning iron ground is like blood, / a raging fire ever ablaze, / for many hundred yojanas around, / flames spreading and interpenetrating." Answer: this Jambudvīpa is narrow at the top and broad at the bottom, just like a heap of grain, and so it is indeed capable of containing them all — it is for this same reason that the sūtras state that the four great oceans grow gradually deeper the further one enters them. Furthermore, each and every great hell has sixteen adjuncts: each has four gates, and, outside each and every gate, there are four adjuncts apiece. The first is the ember-pit adjunct, within which the embers reach up to one's knees. The second is the corpse-filth adjunct, within which corpse-filth and mud fill the ground. The third is the blade-edge adjunct, within which there are, furthermore, three kinds: first, the path of sword-blades, in which sword-blades are laid face-up to form a road; second, the forest of sword-leaves, in which the entire forest bears nothing but sharp sword-blades for leaves; and third, the forest of iron thorns, in which the trees bear sharp iron thorns sixteen finger-widths long — although the path of sword-blades and these other two differ, since they share the same iron weaponry, they are all subsumed under this one single adjunct. The fourth is the scorching-river adjunct, within which there is a boiling, briny water. Together with the fundamental hell itself, this makes seventeen — and so these eight great hells, together with all their adjuncts, come to one hundred and thirty-six locations in total, and it is for this reason that the sūtras state there are one hundred and thirty-six naraka-realms. Question: why are the adjunct-hells called "adjuncts"? Answer: some hold: within the fundamental hell, a single kind of instrument of torment afflicts the beings there, whereas, within these adjuncts, a variety of instruments of torment afflict the beings there, and it is for this reason that they are called "adjuncts" — and it is for this same reason that the Sūtra of the Divine Messengers states that, within the adjunct-hells, a variety of instruments of torment are used against the guilty. Others hold: this is simply a place where suffering is added on top of what came before, and it is for this reason that it is called an "adjunct" — that is, having already been oppressed and afflicted within the fundamental hell, one then encounters yet further suffering in this additional place; it does not mean that a greater variety of instruments of torment is what makes it an "adjunct," since the fundamental hell, too, has many instruments of torment, while the Prajñaptiśāstra states that the adjunct-hells contain only a single kind, such as the ember-pit and the like. Question: are the wardens of the hells sentient beings, or not? If they are sentient beings, then, given how much evil they themselves commit, in what place do they then undergo their own ripened retribution? And if they are not sentient beings, then how is the verse of the Venerable Dharmasubhūti to be reconciled, where it states:

"His mind ever harboring rage and venom, / delighting in gathering every evil deed, / rejoicing at the sight of others' suffering — / at death, he becomes a warden of King Yama"? Some hold: they are indeed sentient beings. Question: given how much evil they commit, in what place do they then undergo their own ripened retribution? Answer: within that very same hell, since that place is already capable of accommodating even the extremely heavy ripened retribution of the karma of immediate retribution and the like — how much more so, then, this lesser retribution? Others hold: they are not sentient beings at all — rather, through the overwhelming power of the guilty beings' own karma, what is not sentient is made to appear as though it were sentient, using various instruments of torment to torment their bodies.

Question: if so, then how is the Venerable Dharmasubhūti's own verse to be reconciled? Answer: this need not necessarily be reconciled at all, since it is not something spoken within the Sūtra, the Vinaya, or the Abhidharma, but is merely a composed literary verse — and a composed literary verse may either exaggerate or understate its subject, and need not necessarily correspond exactly to its own meaning, so why should it require any reconciliation at all? If one nevertheless insists on reconciling it, then it carries a separate intention: that is, whoever binds a newly-arisen hell-being with iron chains and escorts him before King Yama is indeed a sentient being, whereas whoever afflicts beings within the hells with various instruments of torment is not a sentient being at all — and the Venerable Dharmasubhūti composed his verse with reference to the sentient-being category alone. Beneath Jambudvīpa lie the great hells; upon Jambudvīpa itself, there are also peripheral hells and isolated hells, whether located in valleys, upon mountains, in open wilderness, or in the sky. In the other three continents, there are only peripheral hells and isolated hells, never any great hell — why so? Because only the people of Jambudvīpa perform wholesome deeds with such fierce intensity, and it is likewise only they who commit evil karma with such fierce intensity, unlike the people of the other continents. Others hold: Uttarakuru, too, has no peripheral hells and the like, since it is a place where beings experience only the fruit of purely undefiled karma. Question: if the other continents have no great hell, then, when the beings there commit the karma of immediate retribution, sever their own wholesome roots, and the like, in what place do they then undergo their own ripened retribution? Answer: within this very Jambudvīpa's own great hells beneath it. Question: what is the physical form of a hell-being? Answer: its form resembles that of a human being. Question: what of its speech? Answer: at the very moment of its first arising, it speaks only in the noble language — but afterward, while undergoing suffering, although it does utter every manner of cry and groan of pain, not a single intelligible word can be made out among them, only the sounds of hacking, stabbing, and rending.

What is meant by the animal-destiny? Answer: it is the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion among all the animals, attained by dependence, by substance, and by place, together with the neutral-and-unobstructed form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness of an animal already born — this is called the animal-destiny; the explanation is exactly as before. Question: why is this destiny named "lying-crosswise-born"? Answer: since its body lies crosswise, its manner of movement, too, is crosswise; and since its manner of movement is crosswise, its body, too, is crosswise — and it is for this reason that it is named lying-crosswise-born. Others hold: "lying-crosswise-born" is a mere conventional designation, a mere conventional notion, a name that is posited, a notion that is posited — every name and notion is established however one wishes, and need not necessarily correspond to its own meaning. Others hold: it is because those beings, having performed and augmented an overwhelming bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct born of delusion, go there, are born there, and there continue their own succession of existence, that it is named the animal-destiny. Others hold: that destiny is named lying-crosswise-born because of its own dullness and obscurity, "dull and obscure" meaning precisely the absence of wisdom, since there is no destiny among the five as devoid of wisdom as that one. Others hold: it is named lying-crosswise-born because it flows pervasively through every place — that is, it is found pervading all five destinies alike. Within naraka, there are footless beings, such as the nyaṅku-worm and the like; two-footed beings, such as the iron-beaked bird and the like; four-footed beings, such as the black-and-white dog and the like; and many-footed beings, such as the centipede and the like. Within the ghost-destiny, there are footless beings, such as venomous serpents and the like; two-footed beings, such as crows and owls and the like; four-footed beings, such as foxes, raccoon-dogs, elephants, and horses and the like; and many-footed beings, such as six-footed and hundred-footed creatures and the like. Within the three continents of the human destiny, there are footless beings, such as every kind of creeping, crawling worm; two-footed beings, such as wild geese and the like; four-footed beings, such as elephants and horses and the like; and many-footed beings, such as the centipede and the like. Within Uttarakuru, there are two-footed beings, such as wild geese and the like, and four-footed beings, such as elephants and horses and the like, but there are no footless or many-footed beings at all, since that continent is a place where beings experience only the fruit of karma free of affliction and harm. And within the Heaven of the Four Great Kings and the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, there are two-footed beings, such as birds of excellent plumage and the like, and four-footed beings, such as elephants and horses and the like, while the rest are absent for the reasons explained above; within the four heavens above these, there are only two-footed beings, such as birds of excellent plumage and the like, all the rest being entirely absent, since the sky-dwelling heavens grow ever more excellent and refined. Question: if those places have no elephants or horses, then what do the gods there ride upon — for one also hears that the gods there do ride upon elephants and horses and the like?

How, then, can it be said there are none? Answer: through the power of those gods' own meritorious karma, forms resembling elephants, horses, and the like — though not themselves sentient beings — are conjured up for them to ride upon and enjoy for their own amusement. Question: where did animals originally dwell? Answer: their original dwelling-place was within the great ocean, and it was only afterward that they came to circulate and spread throughout every destiny. Question: what is their physical form? Answer: for the most part, they lie crosswise, though some do stand upright, such as the kiṃnara, the piśāca, the heruka, and the like. Question: what of their speech? Answer: at the very beginning of the eon's formation, they all spoke in the noble language, but afterward, because of inequality among beings regarding the timing of food and drink, and because of an increase in flattery and deceit, various kinds of speech arose, down even to beings entirely incapable of speech.

What is meant by the ghost-destiny? Answer: it is the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion among all the ghosts, and so on at length, exactly as before. Question: why is this destiny named preta? Answer: the Prajñaptiśāstra states that, just as the present-day king of the ghost-world is named Yama, so too, at the very beginning of this eon, there was a king of the ghost-world named Pitṛ, and it is for this reason that every being who goes there and is born there is named preta, meaning precisely "belonging to the realm of Pitṛ" — and from that time onward, this name has continued to be applied. Others hold: preta is a mere conventional designation, a mere conventional notion, and so on at length, exactly as before.

Others hold: it is because those beings, having performed and augmented an overwhelming bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct born of stinginess and greed, go there, are born there, and there continue their own succession of existence, that it is named the ghost-destiny. Others hold: it is named "ghost" because of its overwhelming hunger and thirst, since, through accumulating the karma that draws forth hunger and thirst, one may go for hundreds of thousands of years without even hearing the word "water," let alone actually seeing it, still less touching it — some even have a belly as vast as a mountain and a throat as narrow as a needle's eye, so that even should they happen upon food and drink, they are utterly incapable of taking it in. Others hold: it is named "ghost" because of being driven into servitude, since these beings are constantly driven here and there by the gods and made to run about without rest. Others hold: it is named "ghost" because of its overwhelming craving expectation, since, among the five destinies, none exceeds this one in the sheer degree to which it looks with craving expectation upon other beings — and it is for these reasons that it is named the ghost-destiny. Question: where do ghosts dwell? Answer: five hundred yojanas beneath Jambudvīpa lies the realm of King Yama, which is the original dwelling-place of every ghost; from there, they have since circulated and come to dwell in other places as well. Within this continent, there are two kinds of ghosts: those possessing majesty and splendor, and those lacking it. Those possessing majesty and splendor dwell variously among groves of flowers and fruit, upon fine trees in excellent mountain forests, and some even have palaces suspended in the sky, or dwell in other pure places, experiencing every manner of blessed happiness. Those lacking majesty and splendor dwell variously in latrines, cesspools, filthy mire, drains, and pits and trenches, or dwell in every kind of foul and impure place, afflicted by meager merit, poverty, hunger, and thirst. In Pūrvavideha to the east and Aparagodānīya to the west, these same two kinds are likewise found. In Uttarakuru, only those possessing great majesty and splendor are found; others hold that there are none there at all, since the ghost-destiny is drawn forth by stinginess and greed, and Uttarakuru is a place where beings are born free of any such grasping attachment.

Within the Heaven of the Four Great Kings and the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, only ghosts possessing great majesty and splendor are found, serving the assemblies of gods as gatekeepers, patrols, escorts, and attendants. Others hold: to the west of this Jambudvīpa, there are five hundred islets arranged in two rows, and, among these two rows of islets, there are five hundred cities — two hundred and fifty cities inhabited by ghosts possessing majesty and splendor, and two hundred and fifty cities inhabited by ghosts lacking it. It was for this reason that, long ago, there was a wheel-turning king named Nimi, who said to his charioteer Mātali: "I wish to go on a sightseeing tour — guide the chariot along this road, so that I may see the good and evil fruits sentient beings undergo." Mātali then, exactly as the king had instructed, guided the chariot to pass between the two rows of islets. The king then saw the ghosts possessing majesty and splendor, their heads crowned with garlands of flowers, their bodies clothed in heavenly garments, feasting on delicious food just like the sons of gods, riding upon elephants, horses, and chariots, each amusing themselves in play; and he saw the ghosts lacking majesty and splendor, their hair disheveled, their bodies naked and unclothed, their complexions withered and gaunt, covering themselves with their own hair,

holding earthenware bowls and going about begging for alms. Having seen this, the king came to believe deeply in the good and evil fruits of karma. Question: what is the physical form of the ghost-destiny? Answer: for the most part, it resembles that of a human being, though some lie crosswise, or have a face resembling that of a pig, or resembling various other fierce birds and beasts, exactly as depicted in the painted images on walls today. Question: what of their speech? Answer: at the very beginning of the eon's formation, they all spoke in the noble language, but afterward, various kinds of speech arose depending on their locale. Some hold: whatever place a being dies and is reborn from, that same being takes on that place's own form and that same place's own speech. The verdict: this account should not be given,

since, were it so, a being dying in the formless realm and being reborn in this destiny would then have to be entirely without form and without speech, which is absurd. It should rather be said that a being's form and speech accord with whatever place it is actually born into.

What is meant by the human destiny? Answer: it is the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion among all humans, and so on at length, exactly as before. Question: why is this destiny named manuṣya? Answer: long ago, there was a wheel-turning king named Māndhātā, who said to all his people: "whenever you wish to undertake some action, you should first deliberate, weigh, and consider it carefully." At that time, the people, exactly as the king had instructed, began first deliberating, weighing, and considering carefully whenever they wished to undertake some action, and thereby came to acquire skill in every manner of craft and trade — and it was because of this capacity to use the mind to deliberate and consider the matter to be done that they were named manuṣya, "beings of mind," and it is from that time onward that this name has been handed down and established. Before this name manuṣya was given, people were called by various other names, such as "Cloud-Neck," "Palm-Shank," "Tilaka," or "Āṣāḍha." Others hold: manuṣya is a mere conventional designation, and so on at length, exactly as before. Others hold: it is because they had previously performed and augmented a lesser grade of bodily, verbal, and mental good conduct, and thereby went there, were born there, and there continued their own succession of existence,

that it is named the human destiny. Others hold: it is named "human" because of its overwhelming pride and arrogance, since none among the five destinies exceeds the human in the sheer degree of pride and arrogance found there. Others hold: it is named "human" because of its capacity to still the mind, since none among the five destinies exceeds the human in this capacity to still the mind — and it is for this reason that a sūtra states that human beings possess three things superior even to the gods: first, valor; second, mindful recollection; and third, the holy life. "Valor" means being capable of undertaking every kind of austere practice even without seeing its future fruit; "mindful recollection" means being capable of remembering, clearly and distinctly, matters done and spoken long ago; and "the holy life" means being capable of first planting the excellent wholesome roots conforming to liberation and conforming to penetration, and being capable of upholding the prātimokṣa precepts — and it is for these reasons that this destiny is named the human destiny. Question: where do humans dwell? Answer: they dwell in the four great continents — namely, Jambudvīpa, Pūrvavideha, Aparagodānīya, and Uttarakuru — and they also dwell in eight intermediate continents. What are these eight? Uttarakuru has two attendant continents: the first is Kurava, and the second is Kaurava. Pūrvavideha has two attendant continents: the first is Deha, and the second is Videha. Aparagodānīya has two attendant continents: the first is Śāṭha, and the second is Uttaramantriṇa. Jambudvīpa has two attendant continents: the first is Cāmara, and the second is Avaracāmara.

The people of these eight continents are short in stature, resembling the dwarves of this land. Others hold: only seven of these continents are inhabited by humans, since Cāmara is inhabited exclusively by rākṣasas. Others hold: these eight named continents are simply alternate names for the four great continents themselves, since each of the four great continents already has two alternate names. According to this latter account, however, it should be understood, exactly as the first account states, that each of these eight intermediate continents has, in turn, five hundred smaller islands as its own attendant retinue,

some of which are inhabited by humans, some by non-humans, and some entirely uninhabited. Question: what is the physical form of the human destiny? Answer: its body stands upright — though the people of Jambudvīpa have faces shaped like a cart's bed, the people of Pūrvavideha have faces shaped like a half-moon, the people of Aparagodānīya have faces shaped like a full moon, and the people of Uttarakuru have faces shaped like a square pond. Question: what of their speech? Answer: at the very beginning of the world's formation, everyone spoke in the noble language, but afterward, because of inequality among beings regarding the timing of food and drink, and because of an increase in flattery and deceit, various kinds of speech arose, down even to beings entirely incapable of speech.

What is meant by the destiny of the god? Answer: it is the shared class-nature belonging to a single kind of companion among all gods, and so on at length, exactly as before. Question: why is this destiny named "heavenly"? Answer: among all the destinies, that destiny is the most excellent, the most blissful, the most wholesome, the most sublime, and the most exalted, and it is for this reason that it is named the heavenly destiny. Others hold: it is because they had previously performed and augmented the highest grade of bodily, verbal, and mental good conduct, and thereby went there, were born there, and there continued their own succession of existence, that it is named the heavenly destiny. Others hold: "heavenly" is a mere conventional designation, and so on at length, exactly as before. Others hold: it is named "heavenly" because of its overwhelming radiance, since the bodies of those beings naturally shine forth, illuminating both day and night alike. The grammarians hold that it is named "heavenly" because of its capacity to illuminate, since its own excellent present fruit illuminates and makes evident the causes it had previously cultivated. Furthermore, it is named "heavenly" because of its playful delight, since those beings constantly wander at play, experiencing the most excellent bliss. Question: where do the gods dwell? Answer: the Heaven of the Four Great Kings dwells upon the seven golden mountains and upon the four tiers of Sumeru, as well as within the sun, moon, and stars; the Trāyastriṃśa heaven dwells at the very summit of Sumeru; and from the Yāma heaven clear up through the Akaniṣṭha heaven, all dwell suspended in the sky, upon dense clouds as though upon solid ground, each with its own palace to abide within — their distinctions are explained at length in the Great Elements Aggregate. The gods of the formless realm, having no physical form at all, have no distinct dwelling-place. Question: what is the physical form of the gods? Answer: their bodies stand upright. Question: what of their speech? Answer: they all speak in the noble language.

Having now explained each of the five destinies in its own individual distinctness, the asura, which falls among them, shall now be discussed. Certain other schools maintain that the asura constitutes a sixth destiny — but this position should not be held, since the sūtras state that there are only five destinies. Question: why is it named asura? Answer: "sura" means "god," and, since asuras are not gods, they are named asura. Furthermore, "sura" means "handsome," and, since asuras are not handsome, they are named asura, this being because their envy and hatred of the gods causes the very body-form they obtain to become unhandsome. Furthermore, "sura" means "of the same kind," and, although asuras originally dwelt in close proximity to the gods, since they do not belong to the same kind, they are named asura — that is, at the very beginning of the world's formation, the asuras originally dwelt at the very summit of Mount Sumeru; afterward, when a god of the Ābhāsvara heaven, his lifespan, karma, and merit all exhausted, died in that heaven and was reborn in this place, a superb and excellent palace spontaneously appeared for him — and the asuras, their minds filled with envy and hatred, then withdrew to make way for him. After this, a second god was likewise reborn there, and they moved yet again to make room — and so it continued, until the entire Trāyastriṃśa assembly of gods came to dwell, one after another, all across the summit of Sumeru, and the asuras, in their extreme wrath, withdrew downward entirely. Yet the assembled gods, from the very moment of their own first arising, all pointed at the asuras and said, "these are not our own kind, these are not our own kind" — and it is through this repeated exchange that they came to be named "not of the same kind." And it is because their envy and hatred arose in this way that their own body-form became unhandsome, and it is for this very reason that they are named "unhandsome." Question: to what place did the asuras withdraw to dwell? Answer: some hold: within Mount Sumeru there is a hollow, empty space, like an overturned jeweled vessel, and within it lies a city, which is their own dwelling-place. Question: why does a sūtra report the asuras as saying, "the sea in which we dwell shares one and the same salty taste"? Answer: their own subordinate villages dwell within the salt sea, though the asura king himself dwells within that very mountain. Others hold: within the great salt sea, upon a golden wheel, there stands a great golden platform, five hundred yojanas high and five hundred yojanas broad, and, upon this platform, there lies a city, which is their own dwelling-place. Question: if so, then why does the Prajñaptiśāstra state that the nāgas of the inner sea, upon seeing the asura army clad in armor of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal, wielding every manner of weapon of gold, silver, and the like, emerging from the asura city, then report this to the gods? Answer: the gods station the nāgas upon the golden mountains as sentinels, and it is from there that they see, from afar, the asura army emerging from its city within the great salt sea, and report this to the assembled gods. Just as the Trāyastriṃśa heaven has four excellent gardens — namely, the Garden of Many Chariots, the Coarse and Evil Garden, the Mixed Forest, and the Garden of Joy — the asura king likewise has four gardens: the first named Delight, the second Joy, the third Extreme Joy, and the fourth Loveliness. Just as the Trāyastriṃśa heaven has its Pārijāta tree, the asura king likewise has his Citrapāṭalī tree. Just as Śakra presides as lord over the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, Vemacitra presides as lord over the asuras. Question: what is the physical form of the asuras? Answer: their bodies stand upright. Question: what of their speech? Answer: they all speak in the noble language. Question: to which destiny do the asuras belong? Answer: some hold: they are subsumed under the destiny of the god. Question: if so, then why are they incapable of entering correctly determined liberation from birth? Answer: because they are covered over by flattery and deceit. What is the nature of this? Answer: they constantly suspect the Buddha of favoring the gods as his own faction — so that, were the Buddha to teach them the four foundations of mindfulness, they would think to themselves, "the Buddha has taught us four foundations of mindfulness, but he must surely have taught the gods five"; and, were the Buddha to teach them the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, they would think to themselves, "the Buddha has taught us thirty-seven, but he must surely have taught the gods thirty-eight" — and it is because their minds are covered over by just such flattery and deceit that they are incapable of entering correctly determined liberation from birth. Furthermore, one ought not conclude, merely from their incapacity to enter correctly determined liberation from birth, that they must therefore be subsumed under an evil destiny — for the Dasyus and the Mlecchas, too, are likewise incapable of entering correctly determined liberation from birth, yet are not thereby subsumed under any evil destiny, and the very same should hold for the asuras as well. According to this latter account, the asuras are instead subsumed under the ghost-destiny. Question: if so, then why does a sūtra report Śakra as saying to the asura king Vemacitra, "you were originally a god of this place"? Answer: Śakra ought properly to have said, "you were originally a ghost of this place" — but he spoke of him as a god instead out of respect for his own father-in-law, offering this affectionate speech, and also in order to please Śacī, who was listening, and bring her joy. Question: if they are indeed ghosts, then how could they possibly intermarry so closely with the gods? Answer: the gods, craving physical beauty, pay no regard to lineage or clan — just as Śacī, the asura maiden, was of matchless, incomparable beauty, and it was for this reason that Śakra took her as his own wife; and just as the daughter of the great Kiṃnara king Mahādruma, named "Mind-Ravisher," was likewise of unrivaled, matchless beauty, and, although she was subsumed under the animal-destiny, Prince Sudāna, the son of the Sumeru king — the Bodhisattva himself — sought her hand in marriage, exactly the same holds true here as well. Question: how, then, could they also wage war against the gods? Answer: it does sometimes happen that an inferior party contends against a superior one, just as a slave may quarrel with his master, or a dog may fight with a man.

Question: there are also spirits venerated by human beings as gods, such as the spirit Vardhana, the spirit Caṇḍikā, the spirit Caṇḍālikā, the spirit Pūrṇabhadra, the spirit Maṇibhadra, the spirit Hārītī, the spirit Skanda, and the like — are these subsumed under the destiny of the god, or under the destiny of the ghost? If they belong to the destiny of the god, then why do they seize human vital essence, take human life, and accept human sacrificial offerings — since the gods regard human food and drink as no better than filth and excrement, and would never crave and devour it as though it were fragrant and delicious? And if they belong to the destiny of the ghost, then how is the verse spoken by the spirit Hārītī to be reconciled, where it states:

"Beloved one, you should be silent, and Uttarā likewise — when I myself behold the truth, I shall cause you both to behold it too"? And how is what the spirit Skanda himself stated to be reconciled, where it says, "Householder, do not be afraid, householder, do not be afraid — in my immediately preceding life, I was named Mahāskanda, and was ever a close friend of yours; now I am reborn within the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, ever abiding above this Śivaka gate, guarding and protecting the people here"? Answer: some hold: these are indeed of the destiny of the god. Question: if so, then why would they seize human vital essence, take human life, and accept human sacrificial offerings? Answer: they themselves do no such thing — it is rather the ghosts and spirits under their own command who do such things as seizing human vital essence,

and the like. According to this latter account, they are of the destiny of the ghost. Question: how, then, is the spirit Hārītī's own verse to be reconciled? Answer: she herself, in truth, was genuinely incapable of beholding the truth, yet, out of deep faith, uttered these words — and, moreover, at that very time, upon hearing the four truths taught, she gave rise to an overweening pride and the presumptuous notion that she had indeed beheld the truth, and it was for this reason that she spoke in this way. Question: how, then, is what the spirit Skanda himself stated to be reconciled? Answer: he himself, in truth, was genuinely incapable of discerning his own destiny, and, out of sheer self-aggrandizement, claimed to have been reborn as a god — just as a wealthy man today might boast of his own high status before his own servants and slaves, exactly the same holds true here as well. Furthermore, since he serves and attends upon the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, he identified his own person with those he served, and it was for this reason that he spoke in this way. Every earth-dwelling spirit, such as the kumbhāṇḍa, the yakṣa, the rākṣasa, the kaṭapūtana, and the like, is subsumed under the destiny of the ghost; while the kiṃnara, the piśāca, the heruka, the varuṇa, and the palagūla, and the like, are all subsumed under the animal-destiny — for, although their bodies stand upright, they still retain certain animal-like marks, such as pointed ears in some,

horns upon the head in others, some bearing a fearsome staff, some having the head of a bird or beast, and some having the hooves of an animal — and it is for this reason that all of these are subsumed under the animal-destiny.

Here, the first four destinies are fettered only to the desire realm, and are therefore eliminated by the stage of proximate access; the destiny of the god is eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds or the stage of proximate access, since the destiny of the god is fettered to all nine grounds. That fettered to the desire realm is eliminated by the stage of proximate access; and so on clear through that fettered to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, which is eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds' own stage of proximate access and the meditative interval. As for the concentration spoken of in this passage, some hold that it refers to the uncontaminated alone; others hold that it refers to both the contaminated and uncontaminated, to be distinguished exactly as explained above. As for the "elimination" spoken of, if it refers to generic-type elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access, the meditative interval, and the seven upper proximate-access grounds, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the destiny of the god fettered to the desire realm clear through the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. If it refers to final elimination, then the term "stage of proximate access" here subsumes the stage of proximate access and the meditative interval, and, within the stage of proximate access, subsumes only the uncontaminated, since this is capable of eliminating the destiny of the god fettered to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. It is for this reason that it is said that it is eliminated by the seven fundamental grounds or the stage of proximate access.