The Buddha's Final Nirvāṇa

Should the mind at an arhat's final nirvāṇa be said to be wholesome, or neutral? Answer: it should be said to be neutral. Question: why is this treatise composed? Answer: it is in order to settle a lingering doubt definitively — that is, an arhat has already severed the unwholesome dharmas and possesses the wholesome dharmas, and a doubt might therefore arise as follows: if so, then an arhat ought to abide in a wholesome mind at his final nirvāṇa. It is in order to settle this doubt definitively, clarifying that, although an arhat has severed the unwholesome dharmas and possesses the wholesome dharmas, he nevertheless abides in a neutral mind, not a wholesome one, at his final nirvāṇa, that this treatise is composed. Had this treatise not been composed earlier, then, even up to the present day, were the question asked, "should the mind at an arhat's final nirvāṇa be said to be wholesome, or neutral?" people, failing to understand, might answer, "it is wholesome, not neutral, since an arhat has already severed every unwholesome dharma and possesses the wholesome dharmas." It is because this treatise was composed earlier that, even up to the present day, this is everywhere correctly understood — and it is for this reason that this treatise is composed. Question: why does an arhat abide only in a neutral mind at his final nirvāṇa? Answer: only a neutral mind accords with the severing of mind — that is, a wholesome mind, being powerful, firm, stable, and difficult to destroy, is able to cause the subsequent continuation of mind for a long span of time, and hence does not accord with the severing of mind; a neutral mind, being feeble, like a rotten seed, unstable and easily destroyed,

is unable to cause the subsequent continuation of mind for a long span of time, and hence accords most fully with the severing of mind. Some say: it is because a neutral mind gives rise to fewer faults — that is, a wholesome or unwholesome mind gives rise to many faults within birth-and-death through two gateways: first, through the gateway of the retributive fruit; and second, through the gateway of the outflow fruit; a neutral mind gives rise to faults only through the gateway of the outflow fruit, not through the retributive fruit. Some say: it is because an arhat has turned his back on every future birth — that is, every other sentient being, when about to die, exerts the utmost force of mental application for the sake of a future birth, causing a wholesome mind to arise, lest he fall into some undesirable destiny; an arhat, having turned his back on every future birth, no longer engages in such mental application, and merely abides in a neutral mind at his final nirvāṇa. Some say: it is because an arhat does not seek to proceed toward any vessel of future retribution — that is, every other sentient being, seeking to proceed toward a vessel of future retribution, exerts the utmost effortful practice when about to die, causing a wholesome mind to arise; an arhat, not seeking to proceed toward any such vessel of retribution, merely abides in a neutral mind at his final nirvāṇa. Some say: an arhat abides in the mind of his own intrinsic nature upon entering nirvāṇa — this mind of intrinsic nature being precisely the neutral mind, since it is never absent from any single instance of birth. There may be a given class of common existence in which no wholesome mind ever arises — namely, one whose wholesome roots have already been severed and not yet reconnected; and there may be a given class of common existence in which no unwholesome mind ever arises — namely, one already free of the defilement of the desire realm; but there is no class of common existence at all in which a neutral mind never arises — and it is for this reason that the neutral mind is named the mind of intrinsic nature, and it is in this mind alone that one enters nirvāṇa. Some say: this is because an arhat must abide in each of these minds, in turn, as if in the company of a friend of successively higher rank, before entering nirvāṇa — just as a man, wishing to travel to another land, is escorted by his friends: the lesser friends accompany him to the gate and turn back; the middling friends accompany him as far as the village boundary; and the higher friends accompany him as far as the border of the country. It is the same with an arhat proceeding toward nirvāṇa: the unwholesome, defiled mind is like the lesser friend, taking his leave upon becoming free of the defilement of the desire realm and of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception; the wholesome mind is like the middling friend, taking its leave when the neutral mind arises; and the neutral mind is like the higher friend, taking its leave only at the moment of final nirvāṇa itself. Some say: this is because the arhat gradually relinquishes the dharmas of birth-and-death — that is, upon becoming free of the defilement of the desire realm, he relinquishes every unwholesome mind; upon becoming free of the defilement of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, he relinquishes every defiled mind; upon the neutral mind arising, he relinquishes every wholesome mind; and upon entering nirvāṇa without remainder, he relinquishes every neutral mind. The Venerable Ghoṣa said: every wholesome mind arises only through deliberate effort, and, when about to die, one is no longer able to exert such deliberate effort — and it is for this reason that one abides only in a neutral mind at one's final nirvāṇa.

Question: what does an arhat's very last mind take as its object? Some say: it takes as its object the faculties and great elements within his own body. Some say: it takes as its object the six internal spheres. Some say: it takes as its object the six external spheres. Some say: it takes as its object all twelve spheres. The Venerable one said: what does an arhat's very last mind take as its object? Answer: it takes his own body as its object, forming, with respect to his own body, the notion that it is without a life-principle and devoid of any possessor of life, and it is with the liberation-gate of emptiness manifesting before the mind that he enters final nirvāṇa. Some say: that mind takes every formation as its object, since, with respect to formations, he perceives deeply their every fault, and it is with the liberation-gate of the wishless manifesting before the mind that he enters final nirvāṇa. Some say: that mind takes nirvāṇa as its object, since, with respect to nirvāṇa, he contemplates the merit of its tranquility, and it is with the liberation-gate of the signless manifesting before the mind that he enters final nirvāṇa. It should be understood that what is spoken of here is with reference to the continuum of the arhat's own dying mind, not the single very last moment of mind, since that final moment of mind is exclusively neutral. The Bhadanta said: an arhat's very last mind takes as its object whatever realm is seen, heard, sensed, or cognized,

since that mind is subsumed under the retribution-born intrinsic being, and, once the force of his prior karmic action is exhausted, it naturally ceases and is extinguished — just as a potter's wheel, once its momentum is spent, comes to rest of itself.

Why do the twin sage-disciples enter final nirvāṇa before the Buddha, and the Buddha only afterward? Answer: those two venerable ones, throughout the long night of time past, have accumulated and increased karma bringing an uninterrupted retribution, lest it become empty and without fruit or ripening. By two causal conditions did these two venerable ones seek out and give rise to just such karma directed toward this very outcome: first, on account of what they had previously seen; and second, on account of what they had previously heard. As for "on account of what they had previously seen": these two venerable ones had, in a past life, witnessed the twin sage-disciples of an earlier fully and perfectly awakened Buddha enter final nirvāṇa before that Buddha, and that Buddha only afterward. As for "on account of what they had previously heard": these two venerable ones had, in a past life, heard that the twin sage-disciples of an earlier fully and perfectly awakened Buddha entered final nirvāṇa before that Buddha, and that Buddha only afterward. Having seen and heard this, they thereupon drew forth a cause conforming to it, dedicating everything of their own conduct — whether moral discipline, or ascetic restraint, or austerities, or the holy life — with the aspiration: may I, in the future, come to be just such a class of virtuous being, forever receiving the bliss of the Dharma directly from the great Teacher, without interruption. Were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa first, and the twin sage-disciples only afterward, then the karma they had accumulated and increased, bringing an uninterrupted retribution, would become empty and without fruit or ripening. Question: no one's accumulated and increased karma, bringing an uninterrupted retribution, surpasses the Buddha's own — if the twin sage-disciples enter final nirvāṇa first, would this not mean that the Buddha's own karma bringing an uninterrupted retribution becomes empty and without fruit or ripening instead?

Would this, then, mean that the twin sage-disciples' own karma bringing an uninterrupted retribution surpasses the Buddha's own? Answer: a disciple's enjoyment of his teacher is of two kinds — enjoyment through material provision, and enjoyment through the Dharma. A teacher's enjoyment of his disciples is of one kind alone — namely, through material provision, not through the Dharma. Yet the karma accumulated and increased, bringing an uninterrupted retribution, is directed solely toward the Dharma, not toward material provision, and it is for this reason that no such fault as the one raised above follows. Question: among the twin sage-disciples, the one superior in wisdom entered nirvāṇa first, not the one superior in superknowledge — but the one superior in superknowledge has thereby lost the enjoyment of the Dharma from him — how, then, is this not a case of his own karma bringing an uninterrupted retribution becoming empty and without fruit or ripening? Answer: no one is superior in wisdom to the World-Honored One himself — although that disciple has entered nirvāṇa, since the World-Honored One remains, his own enjoyment of the Dharma is not thereby made empty and without fruit. Furthermore, it is on account of natural law that the twin sage-disciples enter final nirvāṇa before the Buddha. What is meant by "natural law"? It means that the Dharma must simply be so, admitting neither of alteration nor of dispute — this is the meaning of natural law. This displays that it is, without exception, the natural law of every Buddha that his twin sage-disciples must enter final nirvāṇa before him. Some say: this is on account of a law resembling that of a wheel-turning king — just as a wheel-turning king, wishing to proceed to some region not yet reached, invariably has his vanguard of valiant generals lead the way before him, so, too, does the Dharma-king of the ten powers, wishing to proceed to the realm of nirvāṇa without remainder not yet reached, likewise have his own vanguard of valiant generals — the twin sage-disciples — lead the way before him. Some say: it is in order to bring the sentient beings he converts into the Buddha's own Dharma — that is, there are sentient beings he converts who, although dwelling near the Buddha, exhaust their entire class of common existence without ever wishing to come before the Buddha to receive and practice the Buddha's own Dharma; yet, seeing the twin sage-disciples enter final nirvāṇa, they thereupon become fearful and averse toward birth-and-death, and come before the Buddha to receive and practice the Buddha's own Dharma. Some say: it is in order to resolve the grief and sorrow in the minds of the sentient beings he converts — that is, were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa first, there would be no one at all able to resolve the grief and sorrow in the minds of the sentient beings he converts; but, were the twin sage-disciples to enter final nirvāṇa first, then the Tathāgata would still remain, able, within the four months of the rainy season,

to teach impermanence, both with reference to those disciples and in his own words, resolving their grief and sorrow and causing them to cultivate a superior practice. Some say: it is in order to cause the sentient beings he converts to fix their mindfulness in advance upon the Buddha's own eventual final nirvāṇa — that is, on account of the twin sage-disciples entering final nirvāṇa first, the sentient beings he converts thereupon reflect as follows:

"the Buddha, too, will soon enter final nirvāṇa, since the twin sage-disciples have already entered nirvāṇa" — just as, when the heavens are about to thunder, lightning necessarily flashes first; were the thunder to crash without the lightning coming first, timid and feeble sentient beings, hearing it, would be startled and terrified, and some might even die of it — and it is for this reason that, when the heavens are about to thunder, out of compassion for sentient beings, the lightning is made to flash and flare first, so that they, already forewarned, may await it with settled minds, and, even upon hearing the thunder crash, feel no alarm at all.

It is the same here: were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa first, this would cause a certain class of sentient being, who cherish and yearn for him, to be startled into terror and swoon away; but, were the twin sage-disciples to enter nirvāṇa first, this would cause that same class of being to form, in advance, the notion of the Tathāgata's own eventual final nirvāṇa, so that, when the Buddha does enter nirvāṇa, they no longer swoon away at all. There is a verse that says:

"Constantly forming the notion of impermanence, one grieves not when change and decay come; just as one who has seen the lightning first feels no alarm upon hearing the thunder." Some say: it is in order to put an end to slander — that is, there were non-Buddhist teachers who constantly slandered the Buddha, saying, "the ascetic Gautama takes in Upatiṣya and Kolita, receiving instruction from them by night and teaching it to others by day." Once these two men had entered final nirvāṇa, and the World-Honored One's own teaching of the Dharma remained unchanged from before, every such slander from the non-Buddhist teachers came to an end. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One would not long remain in the world, and must soon enter final nirvāṇa — just as, when the world is about to be destroyed, Mount Sumeru, which has always been coiled about repeatedly by the two great nāga kings Nanda and Upananda, is abandoned by them and left bare, and the gods, upon seeing this, thereby know that the world will soon be destroyed; it is the same here — the Venerable Śāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana entering final nirvāṇa first caused the world to know that the Buddha would soon pass into extinction. It is for reasons such as these, of various kinds, that the twin sage-disciples enter final nirvāṇa first, and the Buddha only afterward.

Question: why did the Venerable Subhadra enter final nirvāṇa first, and the Buddha only afterward? Answer: this, too, is on account of natural law — that is, it is the natural law of every Buddha that his very last disciple enters final nirvāṇa before him. Question: what is meant by "natural law"? Answer: that the Dharma must simply be so, admitting of no alteration, is what is named natural law. This displays that it is, without exception, the natural law of every Buddha that he enters final nirvāṇa only after his very last disciple — this principle admits no variation. Some say:

this is on account of a law resembling that of a wheel-turning king — just as a wheel-turning king, wishing to enter a splendid garden pleasure-ground to disport himself, invariably adorns his very youngest prince with every ornament and sends him in first, only afterward proceeding there himself, so, too, does the unsurpassed Dharma-king of the ten powers, about to enter the splendid pleasure-ground of nirvāṇa without remainder, first adorn his very last disciple with the factors of enlightenment and cause him to enter nirvāṇa first, only afterward proceeding there himself. Some say: the Venerable Subhadra reflected as follows: "every one of my fellow practitioners of the holy life has entered nirvāṇa with remainder before me — I, too, ought to enter nirvāṇa without remainder before every one of my fellow practitioners of the holy life" — and it was on account of this very aspiration that he entered final nirvāṇa before the Buddha. Some say: that venerable one reflected as follows: "just as one receives such-and-such merit from the noble teaching, one likewise receives such-and-such affliction from birth-and-death in return — since I am no longer able to receive the manifold merits of the noble teaching, what need is there for me to remain long, receiving the manifold afflictions of birth-and-death instead?" — and it was for this reason that he entered final nirvāṇa before the Buddha. Some say: that venerable one feared receiving excessive offerings and veneration,

that is, the mallas of Kuśinagara had already conceived of that venerable one as a great teacher, and moreover knew that he had attained the fruit of arhatship; that venerable one reflected as follows: "once the Buddha has entered final nirvāṇa, they will surely make great offerings to me — while, fortunately, the Buddha has not yet entered nirvāṇa, and the mallas are occupied with offerings to the World-Honored One, with no leisure to attend to me — I ought therefore to enter final nirvāṇa before the Buddha." Some say: he wished to cut off the very root of future contention — that is, that venerable one reflected as follows: "were I to enter final nirvāṇa only after the Buddha, non-Buddhists would claim that I am of their own kind,

while the monks, for their part, would claim that I am of their own kind, and, on this account, various disputes would arise" — foreseeing that such a thing would occur in the future, he entered final nirvāṇa before the Buddha for this reason. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One's own merit of converting beings suffers no diminishment even at the very last stage — that is, some might reflect that the World-Honored One's own merit had declined, and it was for this that he entered final nirvāṇa; that venerable one wished to display that the World-Honored One, even at the very last stage, is still able to convert sentient beings and bring their merit to perfect completion — namely, causing them to enter nirvāṇa without remainder — and it was on account of causes and conditions such as these, of various kinds, that he entered final nirvāṇa before the Buddha. As it is said, the World-Honored One, in reliance upon the unshakeable, tranquil concentration, entered final nirvāṇa, and the eye of the world was extinguished — was this while still in concentration, or after having risen from it? Answer: after having risen from it. Question: why is this treatise composed? Answer: it is in order to settle a lingering doubt definitively.

That is, as a sūtra states, the World-Honored One, in reliance upon the unshakeable, tranquil concentration, entered final nirvāṇa, and the eye of the world was extinguished — a doubt might therefore arise that the Buddha entered final nirvāṇa while still in concentration. It is in order to settle this doubt definitively, clarifying that the Buddha entered final nirvāṇa only after rising from concentration, that this treatise is composed. Here, the "unshakeable, tranquil concentration" refers to the concentration conjoined with a neutral, unobscured mind of the desire realm, which, resembling the fourth dhyāna, is named "unshakeable and tranquil" —

it was in reliance upon this that the Buddha entered final nirvāṇa. The Western masters of the Gandhāra region give the following account: as it is said, the World-Honored One entered the fourth dhyāna and entered final nirvāṇa, and the eye of the world was extinguished — was this while still in concentration, or after having risen from it? Answer: after having risen from it. Question: the Buddha, in fact, entered all four dhyānas before his final nirvāṇa — why, then, is it said only that he entered the fourth dhyāna? Answer: although he also entered the first three dhyānas, he did not dwell in them with firm attachment;

were he to enter the fourth dhyāna, he would then dwell there with firm attachment, and it is for this reason that this alone is spoken of. Some say: it was in order to enter the fourth dhyāna that he entered the first three, and it is for this reason that the fourth alone is spoken of. Some say: the first three dhyānas are like being still on the road, while the fourth dhyāna is the very destination itself, and it is for this reason that it alone is spoken of. Some say: when the Buddha was about to enter final nirvāṇa, he rose from the fourth dhyāna and entered the proximate stage of the third dhyāna; rising from the proximate stage of the third dhyāna, he entered the proximate stage of the second dhyāna; rising from the proximate stage of the second dhyāna, he entered the proximate stage of the first dhyāna; and, rising from the proximate stage of the first dhyāna, a wholesome mind of the desire realm manifested before him, and, immediately following this wholesome mind of the desire realm, a neutral, unobscured mind of the desire realm manifested before him, and it was in this very mind that he abode at his final nirvāṇa — since the first three dhyānas' entering and rising involve only the proximate stage, not the root stage, whereas the fourth dhyāna's entering and rising involves the root stage itself, and it is for this reason that it alone is spoken of. The Venerable Ghoṣa said: when the Buddha was about to enter nirvāṇa, immediately following the fourth dhyāna, a wholesome mind of the desire realm manifested before him, and, immediately following this wholesome mind of the desire realm, a neutral, unobscured mind of the desire realm manifested before him, and it was in this very mind that he abode at his final nirvāṇa. Question: is there truly a case of a wholesome mind of the desire realm arising immediately after the fourth dhyāna? Answer: there is — namely, the Buddha, and no one else. Question: why did the Buddha, at his final nirvāṇa, enter the fourth dhyāna last of all? Answer: it is the invariable law of every Tathāgata, Arhat, and Fully Awakened One, more numerous than the sands of the Ganges, to enter concentration in this same sequence before their final nirvāṇa — that is, it is the natural law of every Buddha, without exception, to enter the fourth dhyāna last of all before final nirvāṇa, and, rising from it, to then enter final nirvāṇa. Some say: it is in order to display that the Buddha has attained utmost mastery over that concentration that, although about to enter nirvāṇa, he nevertheless manifestly enters it once more — for, were it not so, he ought not to be able to make it manifest before the mind at all. Some say: it is because the Buddha wishes, out of compassion, to benefit beings of later ages — that is, after the Buddha's passing, sentient beings might reflect as follows: "the World-Honored One, complete with omniscience, still entered the fourth dhyāna at the very moment of his nirvāṇa — how much more, then, should we exert ourselves diligently in every attainment?" — and it is on this account that they diligently cultivate every attainment. Some say: it is on account of a law resembling that of a wheel-turning king — just as a wheel-turning king, having first received his royal consecration and assumed kingship upon a given ground, later comes to die upon that very same ground, so, too, does the unsurpassed Dharma-king of the ten powers, having first assumed the kingship of the Dharma in reliance upon the fourth dhyāna, later return to enter final nirvāṇa in reliance upon that very same ground. Some say: it is on account of a law resembling that of a great and wealthy merchant-lord — just as a wealthy merchant-lord, at the very end, exchanges his most precious treasures without any attachment to them, so, too, does the World-Honored One, at the very end, relinquish the supreme and excellent fourth dhyāna without any attachment to it. At the moment of his final nirvāṇa, the World-Honored One first gave rise to a wholesome mind of the desire realm, and, immediately following this, entered the first dhyāna; from the first dhyāna, he entered the second dhyāna; and so on in succession, up to entering the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception from the sphere of nothing-whatsoever. From the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, immediately following, he entered the attainment of the cessation of feeling and perception; from the attainment of the cessation of feeling and perception, immediately following, he entered the sphere of nothing-whatsoever; from the sphere of nothing-whatsoever, he entered the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception; from the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, he entered the sphere of infinite consciousness; from the sphere of infinite consciousness, he entered the sphere of nothing-whatsoever; from the sphere of nothing-whatsoever, he entered the sphere of infinite space; from the sphere of infinite space, he entered the sphere of infinite consciousness; from the sphere of infinite consciousness, he entered the fourth dhyāna; from the fourth dhyāna, he entered the sphere of infinite space; from the sphere of infinite space, he entered the third dhyāna; from the third dhyāna, he entered the fourth dhyāna; from the fourth dhyāna, he entered the second dhyāna; from the second dhyāna, he entered the third dhyāna; from the third dhyāna, he entered the first dhyāna; from the first dhyāna, he entered the second dhyāna; from the second dhyāna, he entered the third dhyāna; from the third dhyāna, he entered the fourth dhyāna; and, rising from the fourth dhyāna, he thereupon entered final nirvāṇa. Thus, at the moment of his nirvāṇa, the World-Honored One entered the fourth dhyāna four separate times. The first three times he entered it, it was not yet named the unshakeable, tranquil concentration; only the fourth time he entered it was it named the unshakeable, tranquil concentration. Why is this? Because, the first three times, it did not take nirvāṇa as its object, whereas, the fourth time, it did take nirvāṇa as its object. Question: why did the World-Honored One, at his final nirvāṇa, not ascend through the concentrations in their forward sequence, but only in reverse-superseding fashion? Answer: it is the invariable law of every Tathāgata, Arhat, and Fully Awakened One, more numerous than the sands of the Ganges, to ascend through the concentrations in just this way. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One has attained mastery over the concentrations — why is this? Because one who has attained mastery over concentration is thereby able to ascend in reverse-superseding fashion without first having to ascend in forward sequence; whereas one who has not attained mastery over the concentrations is not even able to ascend in forward sequence, let alone ascend in reverse-superseding fashion. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One is able to perform what is difficult to perform — that is, to be able to ascend in reverse-superseding fashion without first ascending in forward sequence is itself a difficult feat, unlike one who ascends in reverse only after having first ascended in forward sequence. Some say: it is in order to display the World-Honored One's own great majestic power — the World-Honored One's own majestic power being such that he is able to ascend in reverse without first ascending in forward sequence, whereas a śrāvaka or a pratyekabuddha, without first ascending in forward sequence, is unable to ascend in reverse and enter the concentrations at all. Some say: it is in order to enter, together with the rest, the attainment of cessation as well — that is, were the Buddha, at that time, to ascend through the concentrations only in forward sequence, there would be no room left for him to enter the attainment of cessation, since the attainment of cessation must necessarily manifest before the mind immediately following the mind of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, reached gradually in sequence — and, were this the case, the Buddha, at his final nirvāṇa, ought not to manifestly enter every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment; yet the Buddha, at his final nirvāṇa, does definitely and manifestly enter every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment — and it is for this reason that he does not ascend through the concentrations in forward sequence, but ascends through them in reverse-superseding fashion instead. Question: why does the World-Honored One, at the moment of his final nirvāṇa, manifestly enter every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment? Answer: it is because it is the invariable law of every Tathāgata, Arhat, and Fully Awakened One, more numerous than the sands of the Ganges, to do just this — that is, it is the law of every Buddha, at the moment of his final nirvāṇa, to manifestly enter every dhyāna and concentration and attainment. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One has attained mastery over the concentrations — that is, one who has attained mastery over the concentrations is still able to manifestly enter them even at the moment of his final nirvāṇa; one who has not attained such mastery over the concentrations is unable to manifestly enter them even at other times, let alone at the moment of his final nirvāṇa. Some say: it is because the Buddha, out of compassion, wishes to benefit sentient beings of a later time — that is, after the Buddha's final nirvāṇa, sentient beings might reflect as follows: "the World-Honored One, complete with omniscience, still manifestly entered every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment at the very moment of his final nirvāṇa — how much more, then, should we exert ourselves diligently with respect to them?" — and it is on this account that they diligently cultivate the dhyānas, the liberations, the concentrations, and the attainments. Some say: it is in order once more to cultivate the relics he is about to leave behind; and also in order to nourish and sustain his own weakened and emaciated body; and also in order to increase and extend the field of merit belonging to Cunda, the son of the craftsman; and also in order to bring to rest the various painful feelings arising within his body on account of its being broken. Some say: it is on account of a law resembling that of a great and wealthy merchant-lord — just as a supremely wealthy merchant-lord, at the moment of his death, opens up his storehouses and treasuries, surveys his wealth and treasures, entrusts them to his sons and grandsons, and only then relinquishes his life, so, too, does the World-Honored One, as the merchant-lord of the unsurpassed true Dharma, at the moment of his nirvāṇa, open up the storehouse and treasury of merit, survey the Dharma-treasures of every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment, entrust them to his disciples, and only then enter nirvāṇa. The Venerable Ghoṣa said: the World-Honored One thereby displays, of himself, the dharma of non-regression — that is, the Buddha, having accomplished every merit, and having attained mastery over cognition with respect to every objective realm, is, even at the moment of his final nirvāṇa, still able to manifestly give rise to every dhyāna, liberation, concentration, and attainment. As a sūtra states: the World-Honored One entered final nirvāṇa at Kuśinagara, in the twin sāla grove, the birthplace of the mallas. Question: why did the World-Honored One enter final nirvāṇa at Kuśinagara? Answer: it was in order to convert and liberate the mallas within Kuśinagara; and also in order to gather in and convert the non-Buddhist ascetic Subhadra; and also in order to plant the seed of pratyekabuddha-awakening in the mighty strongman Pukkusa; and also in order to cause his wife to plant the seed of unsurpassed, perfect awakening. Some say: it was in order to put a stop to the mallas of Kuśinagara being held in contempt — that is, were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa in some other great city, then the mallas of this lesser city would be held in contempt, unable to obtain even a portion of the Tathāgata's own bodily remains, and it is for this reason that the Buddha entered final nirvāṇa there instead. Some say: it was in order to spread the relics of the Buddha's own body widely — that is, were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa in some other great city, its multitude of people would be difficult to overcome, and, with respect to the relics of the Buddha's own body, some might become possessive and reluctant to share, so that they could not be distributed; whereas, were he to enter final nirvāṇa at Kuśinagara, the mallas, being bold in both body and mind — bold in mind, and hence delighting in sharing, and bold in body, and hence not to be overcome by others, and delighting in sharing — would cause the relics of the Buddha's own body to be widely and abundantly spread. Some say: it is in order to display that the Buddha, even at the moment of his final nirvāṇa, still receives, in this world, the fruit of surpassing wealth and honor — that is, were the Buddha to enter final nirvāṇa in any other great city, then, although the offerings he received might exceed those of a wheel-turning king by many hundreds and thousands of times, this would not be especially remarkable; but, entering nirvāṇa in this exceedingly small and remote city, and yet still receiving offerings exceeding those of a wheel-turning king by many hundreds and thousands of times — this, indeed, is especially remarkable. Some say: it is because the Buddha has, on numerous occasions, relinquished his body and life at this very place — as that sūtra relates, the Buddha told Ānanda: at Kuśinagara, there is a golden river and a twin sāla grove; the mallas' own crowning and consecration precinct occupies a level tract of land measuring twelve leagues all around; the Tathāgata has, at this very place, relinquished the body and life of a wheel-turning king on six occasions already, and now, for the seventh time, relinquishes the body and life of a Tathāgata, an Arhat, a Fully Awakened One. Ānanda, you should know that I foresee no place — whether to the east, the south, the west, or the north of this very place — where the Tathāgata will ever relinquish an eighth body and life. Why is this?

because the Tathāgata's every path has severed birth-and-death permanently and completely, and there is no further existence to come.

As it is said, the Buddha told Ānanda: you should go to the twin sāla grove and prepare a bed for the Buddha with its head facing north, since the Tathāgata, this very day, at midnight, shall enter final nirvāṇa in the realm of nirvāṇa without support — and so on at length. Question: why did the World-Honored One have the bed prepared with its head facing north, and lie down upon it in that way? Answer: it is in order to display that this is the proper practice of the debating-masters of that land — that is, the debating-masters of that land invariably prepare their beds with the head facing north and lie down upon them in that way. The World-Honored One did the same, since, as the Buddha is able to subdue every debating-master, he is himself the unsurpassed, foremost debating-master, and it was in accordance with their own practice that he had his own bed prepared and lay down in the same way. Some say: it is in order to display his distance from a false auspicious belief held by the world — that is, the people of that land had it that the dead should be laid upon a bed with the head facing north; the Buddha, wishing to refute this false auspicious belief, therefore, though not yet having entered final nirvāṇa, had his bed prepared with its head facing north in just this way.

Some say: it is in order to put a stop to any impure notion arising in the minds of the mallas of Kuśinagara — that is, the custom of that land was to establish shrines to the gods in the north; had the Buddha lain with his feet toward the north, the mallas might have conceived an impure notion, thinking, "how does this despise and disrespect the very direction to which we ourselves pay reverence, by lying with the feet toward it?" Some say: it is in order to display the Buddha's own reverence for the true Dharma — that is, the Buddha foresaw that, after his final nirvāṇa, the unsurpassed torch of the Dharma would blaze forth in the north for a long time without ever being extinguished, and it was for this reason that he lay upon the bed with his head facing north. Some say: the Buddha wished to display that his own accomplishments grow progressively more excellent at every stage — that is, since the wholesome roots the Buddha had given rise to over three incalculable eons had grown progressively more excellent without ever declining, he had his own head directed toward the more excellent direction, the north being the more excellent direction. Some say: the Buddha wished to display that the population of the north would gradually grow and expand — that is, the Buddha foresaw that, after his final nirvāṇa, the population of the north would gradually grow and expand, and it was for this reason that he had the bed prepared with its head facing north. As it is said, the World-Honored One then went to the bed that had been prepared, and lay down upon his right side, his legs together, facing west, his head toward the north, abiding in the perception of light, complete with mindfulness and awareness, and so on at length. Question: why did the World-Honored One lie upon his right side? Answer: it is in order to display that the Buddha lies just as a lion-king lies — as a sūtra states, lying down is of four kinds: the lying of the lion-king, the lying of a deva, the lying of a hungry ghost, and the lying of one addicted to sensual desire. The lion-king lies upon his right side; a deva lies face upward; a hungry ghost lies face downward; and one addicted to sensual desire lies with his left side upon the ground. The Buddha, being the unsurpassed lion among men, lies upon his right side. Some say: it is in order to display that the World-Honored One acts precisely as he teaches — that is, as a sūtra states, the Buddha told Ānanda: you should all learn to lie as the lion-king lies. The Buddha, being one who acts precisely as he teaches, having urged others to lie upon their right side, therefore did so himself. Question: why did the World-Honored One enter final nirvāṇa lying down, rather than sitting? Answer: it is in order to let the assembly readily perceive every part of the Buddha's own body — some say: were the Buddha to enter nirvāṇa lying down, then the full measure of his body would be manifestly perceptible without need for any further discernment. Some say: it is in order to display that the Tathāgata is free of pretense and deceit — for, were the Buddha to enter nirvāṇa seated, those without faith might say, "this is mere pretense — how could a dead man remain seated upright?" Some say: it is in order to forestall future slander against the noble ones — for, were he to enter final nirvāṇa seated, then, at a later time, when arhats, their bodily strength grown feeble, enter nirvāṇa lying down, the world might slander them, saying, "these are no true arhats — were they truly so, why would they not enter nirvāṇa seated, just as the Buddha did?" Some say: it is in order to cut off the arrogance of those who rely upon their own strength — that is, seeing the Buddha enter final nirvāṇa lying down, they might all reflect as follows: "the World-Honored One, every single part of whose body is complete with the strength of Nārāyaṇa, was still pressed upon by impermanence, unable to remain properly seated — how much more, then, should we, of common and feeble strength, dare to give rise to arrogance by relying on our own paltry strength?"

Question: why did the World-Honored One enter final nirvāṇa in the middle watch of the night? Answer: because this is the most tranquil of times — that is, in that land, the heat of the day made it unfit for activity, and most tasks and undertakings were carried out during the first and last watches of the night, while the middle watch alone was entirely still and quiet. The Tathāgata, ever delighting in tranquility and praising tranquility, therefore entered final nirvāṇa in the middle watch of the night. Some say: it is in order to display that the Buddha, in his skillful measuring and apportioning of what increases and what decreases, never departs from it even for a moment — that is, the Buddha retained his life through the first watch of the night and relinquished it before the last watch, and, within the middle watch itself, retained what came before and relinquished what came after, entering final nirvāṇa in its very middle. Some say: the Buddha wished to cause the great assembly to give rise to profound aversion toward the darkness of birth-and-death — that is, the Buddha entered final nirvāṇa in the middle watch of the eighth night of the bright half of the month of Kārttika, at which time the disk of the moon was setting behind the mountain peak. Thus, at the very moment the Buddha, the Fully and Perfectly Awakened One, likewise concealed himself upon the great mountain of nirvāṇa through concentration, two kinds of darkness arose together — namely, the darkness of physical form and the darkness of ignorance — and, the great assembly, having witnessed this event, thereupon gave rise to profound aversion toward birth-and-death; and it was for this reason that he entered final nirvāṇa in the middle of the night. Some say: it is because the Buddha, at every stage, delights in walking the middle course — that is, the Buddha, in his final birth as a bodhisattva among the gods, was born in the middle realm, the Tuṣita heaven; in his final birth as a human, he was born in the middle land, at the city of Kapilavastu in central India; in the middle watch of the night, he leapt over the city wall and left home, practicing the middle course; having realized unsurpassed awakening for the benefit of sentient beings, he taught the sublime, middle Dharma that transcends both existence and non-existence; and, in the middle watch of the night, he entered final nirvāṇa.

As it is said, at that time Ānanda addressed the Buddha, saying: World-Honored One, in this city of Kuśinagara there are so very many mallas, together with their men and women, young and old, servants and attendants, friends and relatives — all of them take refuge in the World-Honored One, in the Dharma, and in the monastic community, and undertake the various precepts — and so on at length. Question: the moral discipline of individual liberation is normally obtained through one's own declaration — how, then, could the precepts undertaken by these mallas have been obtained through another's declaration? Answer: it was through the Buddha's own spiritual power — that is, moral discipline is, as a rule, invariably obtained through one's own declaration, yet, at the moment of his final nirvāṇa, it was by the Buddha's own majestic power that the mallas' own precepts, too, came to be obtained through another's declaration. Some say: the Venerable Ānanda had, on an earlier occasion, already entered Kuśinagara and administered the threefold refuge and its precepts to the mallas; his report to the Buddha here is simply in order to make this known, displaying that the mallas were the Buddha's own true disciples, and displaying, too, that the Tathāgata, even at his very last stage, was still able to take in newly trained followers — and it is for this reason that the World-Honored One's disciples remained complete to the very end, unlike the non-Buddhist teachers, whose disciples scatter and disperse at the very approach of death. Some say: there is, moreover, a further sense in which the moral discipline of individual liberation may be obtained through another's declaration — as with the woman Pañcaśikha and the like, who, although her own declaration was not altogether clear, nevertheless obtained the moral discipline of individual liberation by the force of another's declaration on her behalf.

As it is said, the Buddha told the monks: from now on, and after my final passing, you should not casually ordain non-Buddhist ascetics, granting them monastic ordination and full precepts,

excepting only members of the Śākya clan, and non-Buddhist ascetics who serve fire or wear matted hair. Should any member of the Śākya clan, wearing the garb of a non-Buddhist ascetic, come seeking to leave the household life, you should ordain him at once, granting him monastic ordination and full precepts. Why is this? Because my own kinsmen ought to be granted this exception — and so on at length. Question: the World-Honored One, who has accomplished a great compassion extending to all, why does he grant this exception only to his own kinsmen? Answer: there were certain members of the Śākya clan who had earlier taken refuge in non-Buddhist teachers, not yet having taken refuge in the Buddha; it was in order to draw them in through skillful means that he made this statement — that is, on account of the wicked king Virūḍhaka's slaughter of the Śākya clan at the city of Kapilavastu, certain remaining Śākyans, out of fear, had taken refuge as non-Buddhist ascetics in order secretly to preserve their own lives. It was for their sake that the Buddha spoke with this meaning: "you, out of fear, took refuge as non-Buddhist ascetics and donned their robes; now that there is no longer any cause for fear, you ought surely to return and take refuge in the Buddha's own Dharma" — and it was for this reason that I have instructed my disciples to hold to this rule, ordaining them; and it was on this account that countless Śākyan non-Buddhist ascetics came to take refuge in the Buddha's own Dharma. Some say: it was in order to draw in and induce those Śākyans, overcome by excessive pride, who had not yet entered the Buddha's own Dharma, causing them to enter it — that is, there were certain Śākyans who, their minds entangled by excessive pride, exhausted their entire class of common existence without ever coming to see the Buddha; once the Tathāgata had spoken these words, he thereupon entered final nirvāṇa, and, when they later heard of it, they were bound to reflect as follows: "did not the Buddha, even at the very moment of his final nirvāṇa, still extend his compassion on my account, on the grounds that I am his own kinsman?" — and it was on this account that there was not one among them who failed to give rise to a pure and sincere mind, coming to take refuge in the Buddha's own Dharma, leaving the household life, and receiving the precepts. The Venerable Vasumitra said: it was in order to cause the Śākya clan, his own kinsmen, to accumulate and increase their own excellent wholesome roots that the Tathāgata, at the moment of his nirvāṇa, entrusted this charge to them. As a sūtra states, at that time the World-Honored One bared the upper part of his body and told the assembly of monks: you should behold me, you should examine me. Why is this? Because a Tathāgata, an Arhat, a Fully and Perfectly Awakened One, is difficult indeed to bring into the world, and difficult indeed to encounter, rarer even than the udumbara flower. Question: why did the World-Honored One bare the upper part of his body and tell the assembly of monks, "you should behold me," and so on at length? Answer: suppose there were a person who practiced calm-abiding for a full twelve years — the wholesome quality thereby generated would not equal the merit obtained by contemplating, for even a brief moment, the Buddha's own body with its major and minor marks. Here, the Buddha's own words carry this meaning: "the accumulated stock of merit I have gathered over three incalculable eons has not yet, up to this very moment, been reduced to a mere heap of ashes — you ought therefore to gaze up and contemplate it closely, seeking the firm and stable Dharma." Question: what is the difference between "you should behold me" and "you should examine me"? Answer: "you should behold me" refers to beholding by way of eye-consciousness; "you should examine me" refers to examining by way of mind-consciousness. Furthermore, "beholding me" refers to a mind without discrimination; "examining me" refers to a mind with discrimination. Furthermore, "beholding me" refers to the present; "examining me" refers to the future. Furthermore, "beholding me" refers to the born, physical body; "examining me" refers to the Dharma-body. Furthermore, "beholding" refers to beholding what has been accumulated; "examining" refers to examining what has been realized. Furthermore, "beholding" refers to beholding what is to be shunned; "examining" refers to examining what is to be delighted in. Furthermore, "beholding" refers to beholding the major and minor marks;

"examining" refers to examining the merits and virtues. This, then, is what distinguishes beholding from examining.

As a sūtra states: monks, be silent now — you should contemplate that all formations are dharmas of exhaustion and cessation. This is the World-Honored One's very last teaching. Question: why did the World-Honored One speak these words? Answer: the assembled monks, on account of the Buddha's approaching nirvāṇa, were consumed with grief and sorrow, weeping and wailing one after another; the Buddha, wishing to bring their grief to rest and cause them to give rise to contemplative practice, spoke these words. Here, "monks, be silent now" causes them to abide in correct mindfulness; "you should contemplate that all formations are dharmas of exhaustion and cessation" causes them to give rise to correct awareness. Furthermore, "be silent" causes them to cultivate calm-abiding; "contemplate formations" causes them to cultivate insight. Furthermore, "be silent" causes their grief and sorrow to cease; "contemplate formations" causes contemplative practice to arise. The Venerable Ghoṣa said: "monks, be silent now" is in order to bring their grief to an end; "you should contemplate that all formations are dharmas of exhaustion and cessation" displays that he himself has accomplished the dharma of never forgetting. Here, the Buddha's own words carry this meaning: "not long after I attained buddhahood, I already spoke these very words —

'all formations are impermanent, possessing the dharma of arising and ceasing; through their arising and ceasing, that very stillness is bliss' — and now, once again, in reliance upon that very same teaching, I say that all formations are dharmas of exhaustion and cessation. Is this not itself proof that I have accomplished the dharma of never forgetting?'"