Why Cultivate Dhyāna at All

Fascicle One, Upper Part
Spoken by the Great Master Zhiyi of Tiantai, of the Sui dynasty
Recorded by his disciple Fashen
Revised and edited by his disciple Guanding

This treatise, Explaining the Sequential Dharma-Gates of Dhyāna-Pāramitā, opens broadly into ten distinct topics. The ten topics are: first, the great intent of cultivating dhyāna-pāramitā; second, explaining the name of dhyāna-pāramitā; third, clarifying the gates of dhyāna-pāramitā; fourth, distinguishing the sequence in which dhyāna-pāramitā is explained; fifth, discriminating the states of mind proper to dhyāna-pāramitā's method; sixth, distinguishing the preliminary expedient means of dhyāna-pāramitā; seventh, explaining the cultivation and realization of dhyāna-pāramitā; eighth, revealing the fruits and rewards of dhyāna-pāramitā; ninth, the teachings that arise from dhyāna-pāramitā; and tenth, gathering together and returning to where dhyāna-pāramitā ultimately leads.

To treat dhyāna-pāramitā by means of these ten topics is, in its written form, to gather in outline the whole beginning and end of every buddha's teaching; in its principle, it reaches far into the hidden treasury of the Tathāgata himself. The entire perfect and wondrous dharma-realm — every teaching and every practice, every phenomenon and every principle, from the ordinary person at the very start to the ultimate sage at the very end — with every cause, fruit, practice, and stage, is contained within it. If a practitioner penetrates deeply into the intent of these gates of dhyāna, they will naturally come to understand the whole of the Buddhadharma, with no need to search further. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says: "It is like tugging at one corner of a garment — every part of it moves."

This is why the first topic explains, first of all, the great intent of cultivating dhyāna-pāramitā: when a bodhisattva sets the mind on the pure and wondrous Dharma of bodhi, they must discriminate the true from the false, and skillfully recognize what is essential. If one wishes to be complete in the entire treasury of every buddha's Dharma, dhyāna alone is foremost — like obtaining a single pearl through which every other treasure is gained at once. This is why the mind is first set on cultivating dhyāna. Having resolved to cultivate it, one should know its name; by tracing the name one grasps the principle, and the meaning is not empty. Hence the name "dhyāna" is explained — tracing the name to seek the principle, and the principle cannot be entered except through its gate. Next, then, the gates of dhyāna are clarified.

Since dhyāna-concentration is deep and far-reaching, it cannot be entered all at once; one must proceed from the shallow to the deep, and so the order of its exposition must be distinguished. And in order to wade from the shallows into the depths, one must also skillfully recognize the objects and the wisdom at work within dhyāna — hence the states of mind proper to its method are next discriminated. Once the states of mind proper to the method are understood, if one wishes to put it into practice, skillful means are needed — hence the preliminary expedient means are next distinguished. Practicing in accordance with the Dharma, one is certain to attain realization — hence cultivation and realization are next explained. Once inner accord is attained, the cause, once complete, brings forth its fruit — hence the fruits and rewards are next revealed. Once the practice for oneself, from cause to fruit, is complete, one then establishes the work of benefiting others — hence the gate of teaching is next explained. Once both principle and teaching are complete, all dharma-characteristics return alike to the one real way of equality — hence the topics are last gathered together and their destination pointed out.

By these ten topics, arising one from another, dhyāna-pāramitā is analyzed and explained, gathering together every dharma-gate of practice as a whole. As the text is followed further below, this will become clear of itself. Hence the Larger Sūtra says: "From the very beginning, the bodhisattva abides within dhyāna-pāramitā, cultivating the entire Buddhadharma in full, until at last sitting at the seat of enlightenment, accomplishing the wisdom that knows all modes, and turning the wheel of the Dharma. This is called the bodhisattva's sequential practice, sequential study, sequential path."

Here the bodhisattva's cultivation of dhyāna-pāramitā is explained under two headings: first, rejecting what is wrong; second, rightly clarifying its true purpose. First, as to rejecting what is wrong: there are ten kinds of practitioners whose resolve to cultivate dhyāna differs from the rest, and who mostly fall into deviance, never entering the dharma-gate of dhyāna-pāramitā. What are these ten?

1. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of profit and support — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the hells.
2. A deceitful mind arising, setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of fame and praise — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the realm of ghosts and spirits.
3. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of one's followers — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the animal realm.
4. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna out of jealousy and the wish to surpass others — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the realm of asuras.
5. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna out of fear of the suffering retribution of the evil destinies, to put unwholesome karma to rest — this mostly belongs to an ordinary human mind.
6. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of a wholesome mind's own ease and happiness — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the six heavens of desire.
7. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of gaining power and mastery — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the realm of Māra.
8. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna for the sake of gaining sharp and swift intelligence — this mostly belongs to a mind bound for the non-Buddhist paths.
9. Cultivating dhyāna for the sake of being born in the Brahmā heavens — this belongs to a mind bound for the form and formless realms.
10. Setting the mind on cultivating dhyāna in order to cross over the suffering of old age, sickness, and death, and swiftly attain nirvāṇa — this belongs to a mind bound for the two lesser vehicles.

Among these ten kinds of practitioners, though good and evil differ, and bondage and liberation differ, none of them possess great compassion or correct contemplation; the mind they set is deviant, and every one falls to one of the two extremes, never reaching the middle way. If one dwells in such a mind while cultivating dhyāna-concentration, one will never come into accord with the dharma-gate of dhyāna-pāramitā.

Second, rightly clarifying the great intent with which a bodhisattva-practitioner cultivates dhyāna-pāramitā: this too has two parts — first, clarifying the mark of a bodhisattva's arising resolve; second, rightly clarifying the true purpose for which a bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna. First, what is called the mark of a bodhisattva's arising resolve? It is what is called the arising of the bodhi-mind. The bodhi-mind is this: through the correct contemplation of the middle way, and through the true mark of all dharmas, the bodhisattva feels compassion for all beings, gives rise to the mind of great compassion, and sets forth the four universal vows.

The four universal vows are these: first, to bring across those not yet brought across — also stated as, "sentient beings are numberless; I vow to bring them across." Second, to bring understanding to those who do not yet understand — also stated as, "afflictions are countless; I vow to sever them." Third, to bring peace to those not yet at peace — also stated as, "dharma-gates are inexhaustible; I vow to know them." Fourth, to bring to nirvāṇa those who have not yet attained it — also stated as, "the supreme buddha-path is unsurpassed; I vow to accomplish it." These four things correspond exactly to the Four Noble Truths. Hence the Yingluo Sūtra says: "To bring across those not yet across the truth of suffering; to bring understanding of the truth of accumulation to those who do not yet understand it; to bring peace through the truth of the path to those not yet at peace; and to bring to realization the truth of cessation for those who have not yet realized it."

Yet when these four things are held in the mind of the two lesser vehicles, they receive only the name "truth," since their contemplation of principle is exact and unmistaken; but when held in the mind of a bodhisattva, they receive instead the distinct name "universal vow." Why is this? Although the bodhisattva knows these four things to be, in the end, empty and still, yet for the benefit of sentient beings, through skillful means, taking hold of these four things, the mind becomes vast and expansive — hence it is called "universal." Out of compassion and loving-kindness, aspiring to and seeking this Dharma, the mind becomes like vajra, holding itself without retreat and without sinking, resolved without fail to bring it to completion — hence it is called "vow."

If a practitioner can set forth these four vows in full, skillfully knowing these four minds, gathering in every mind — every mind is itself the one mind, and yet the one mind is not grasped at, while it is complete with every mind — this is called the pure mind of bodhi. Because this mind arises, one comes to be called a bodhisattva. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"At the very moment the mind first arises,
Vowing that one shall become a buddha —
Already one has gone beyond the world,
And is fit to receive the world's own offerings."

Second, rightly clarifying the true purpose for which a bodhisattva-practitioner cultivates dhyāna: once the bodhisattva-mahāsattva has given rise to the bodhi-mind, reflecting on the wish to fulfill the four universal vows, they must necessarily practice the bodhisattva path. Why is this? To have the vow but not the practice is like wishing to ferry someone across to the other shore while refusing to prepare a boat or raft — know that such a person will remain forever on this shore, never able to cross. It is like a sick person who needs medicine, but, having obtained it, does not take it — know that such a sick person will certainly not recover. It is like a poor person who needs treasure, but, seeing it, does not take hold of it — know that such a person will remain forever destitute. It is like someone wishing to travel far, who does not set foot on the road — know that such a person will never arrive where they intend. A bodhisattva who sets forth the four universal vows without cultivating the four practices needed to fulfill them is exactly the same.

The bodhisattva then further reflects: "By abiding in what dharma-gate, cultivating the bodhisattva path, can I swiftly fulfill these four vows?" And thereupon comes to know that abiding in deep dhyāna-concentration can fulfill the four vows. Why is this? Without the six supernormal powers and the four unhindered eloquences, by what means could one bring sentient beings across? And the six supernormal powers are never brought forth except through dhyāna — hence the sūtra says: "Deeply cultivating dhyāna-concentration, one attains the five supernormal powers." To sever affliction, there is no wisdom apart from dhyāna: wisdom arises from dhyāna, and it is this that can sever the fetters. Wisdom without concentration is like a lamp in the wind. To know the dharma-gates, one should know that every merit and every wisdom is contained within dhyāna — as the Mahāyāna treatise says: "Whatever merits belong to the buddhas' accomplishing the path, turning the wheel of the Dharma, and entering parinirvāṇa, every one of them is contained within dhyāna."

Furthermore, when a bodhisattva enters the samādhi of the place of measureless meanings, the one mind is complete with the ten thousand practices, able to know every one of the measureless dharma-gates. If one wishes to be complete in the unsurpassed buddha-path without cultivating dhyāna-concentration, one could not even attain the form and formless realms or the paths of the three vehicles — how much less the unsurpassed bodhi? One should know that to realize unsurpassed wondrous enlightenment, one must first enter the vajra-samādhi, and only then do all the buddhadharmas actually stand present. Reflecting thus, deep in mind, the bodhisattva comes to know for certain that dhyāna-concentration can fulfill the four vows — as the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"Dhyāna is the treasury of sharp wisdom, the field of merit that bears its fruit;
Dhyāna is like clear, pure water, able to wash away every dust of desire;
Dhyāna is a vajra armor, able to turn back the arrows of affliction.
Though the unconditioned is not yet attained, a portion of nirvāṇa is already gained.
Attaining the vajra-samādhi, one shatters the mountain of the fetters to dust;
Attaining the power of the six supernormal faculties, one can bring countless beings across.
As clamorous dust obscures the sky and sun, yet a great rain can settle it entirely —
So the wind of coarse and subtle discursive thought stirs the mind, yet dhyāna-concentration can still it."

Question: If a bodhisattva wishes to fulfill the four universal vows, should they not practice all ten pāramitās alike? Why single out dhyāna-concentration alone for praise? Answer: Of the ten pāramitās, the first four, taken alone, are the lesser in meaning, and the latter five depend on dhyāna; here, then, dhyāna is spoken of as occupying the very center between them. Why is this? Because when a bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna, the four preceding perfections are thereby brought to completion in a higher degree, and the same holds for the five that follow.

Thus: because the bodhisattva sets the mind on cultivating dhyāna, every family estate, inward and outward alike, is relinquished; life itself is not spared; one dwells in still and quiet seclusion, with nothing held back in miserliness — this is called great giving. Furthermore, because the bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna, body and mind remain unmoved, the six faculties of feeling are closed off, and evil has no way to enter — this is called great upholding of precepts. Furthermore, because the bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna, they are able to bear what is hard to bear — every honor and disgrace alike can be calmly endured; and should every kind of ill-treatment be inflicted on them, fearing only that it might obstruct their samādhi, no anger or vexation arises — this is called patience. Furthermore, because the bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna, the mind is single and wholly devoted to diligence; even should the body grow weary and pained, they never retreat or rest — as in the simile of drilling for fire — sitting always, never lying down, gathering in every scattered thought, never once indulging in laxity; and even should years pass without realization, still they do not retreat or sink. This is a matter hard to carry out, and is itself great diligence. Hence it can be known: through the causes and conditions of cultivating dhyāna, even without deliberately practicing the preceding four perfections separately, the four perfections come to completion of themselves.

Furthermore, as for the bodhisattva's becoming complete in the perfection of wisdom through cultivating dhyāna-concentration: when the bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna, the one mind abides correctly, and because the mind is fixed in concentration, it is able to know the marks of arising and ceasing in worldly dharmas, and wisdom bursts forth with vigor, like a spring breaking out from within rock — hence the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"The perfection of wisdom is the true Dharma, free of every inversion.
Once thought, conception, and discursive contemplation are removed,
Every dharma of speech and language is likewise extinguished;
Measureless offenses are removed, and the pure mind remains ever one —
Only a person so honored and wondrous as this can truly see wisdom itself."

Furthermore, as for the perfection of skillful means becoming complete through dhyāna: every skillful means depends on discerning the occasion; if one does not enter deep dhyāna-concentration, how could one clearly see a being's own capacity, and give rise to the skillful means needed to draw them in? Furthermore, as for the perfection of power becoming complete through dhyāna: every manner of free and self-mastered manifestation, every supernormal power, is brought forth only by means of dhyāna, exactly as already distinguished above. Furthermore, as for the perfection of vow becoming complete through dhyāna: as the Mahāyāna treatise says, "A bodhisattva's dhyāna-concentration is like the asura's lute." One should know that this is precisely the mark of the great vow's own accomplishment. Furthermore, as for the perfection of wisdom becoming complete through dhyāna: whether it is the wisdom that knows all things generally, the wisdom that knows the seeds of every path, or the wisdom that knows all things in every one of their modes — none of these is brought forth apart from concentration; the meaning of this can be seen for oneself. Because the practitioner skillfully cultivates dhyāna, the ten pāramitās are thereby accomplished at once, and the ten thousand practices — every dharma-gate — are fulfilled. This is why, if a bodhisattva wishes to be complete in every vow and practice of all the pāramitās, dhyāna-concentration must be cultivated — this matter is exactly as stated in the Mahāyāna treatise.

Question: The bodhisattva's own Dharma takes bringing sentient beings across as its very task — why, then, dwell alone in an empty mountain, abandoning sentient beings, living in quiet seclusion for one's own good alone? Answer: Though the bodhisattva's body withdraws, the mind does not withdraw. It is like someone who is sick: taking the body to receive medicine, they set worldly affairs briefly to rest, and once the illness is cured, they resume their work exactly as before. So too with the bodhisattva: though the body temporarily withdraws from sentient beings, the mind remains ever compassionate; in a quiet, secluded place, taking the medicine of dhyāna-concentration, they attain true wisdom, remove the sickness of affliction, and give rise to the six supernormal faculties — and then return again into the six destinies, bringing sentient beings across far and wide. For all these various causes and conditions, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva sets the mind on cultivating dhyāna-pāramitā, the mind become like vajra — one that no heavenly demon, non-Buddhist path, or follower of the two lesser vehicles can ever obstruct or destroy.

Here the name "dhyāna-pāramitā" is explained under, in brief, three headings: first, distinguishing the shared name from the unshared name; second, its etymological translation; third, resolving points of doubt. First, distinguishing the shared name from the unshared name: this too has two parts — the shared name, and the unshared name. As for the shared name: the single word "dhyāna" applies in common to whatever concentration is attained by ordinary people, non-Buddhist practitioners, the two lesser vehicles, bodhisattvas, and buddhas alike — hence it is called "shared." As for the unshared name: the three characters "波羅蜜" [pāramitā], meaning "gone to the other shore," apply only to bodhisattvas and buddhas. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says: "When dhyāna is held within a bodhisattva's mind, it is called pāramitā." This is why it is called "unshared."

Why is this? Ordinary people are attached to craving; non-Buddhist practitioners are attached to views; the two lesser vehicles lack great compassion and skillful means, and so cannot cultivate the whole of every dhyāna-concentration to completion — this is why they cannot receive the name "gone to the other shore." Hence it is said that "pāramitā" is precisely the unshared name.

Furthermore: "dhyāna" names the four dhyānas, which ordinary people, non-Buddhist practitioners, the two lesser vehicles, bodhisattvas, and buddhas attain alike — hence it is called "shared." "Pāramitā" names "crossing to the limitless," which belongs to bodhisattvas and buddhas alone. Because through dhyāna they penetrate the buddha-nature of the middle way, give rise to the nine kinds of great dhyāna, and attain great nirvāṇa — not shared with ordinary people or the two lesser vehicles — "pāramitā" is called the unshared name.

Taken as a whole, however, there is no need to labor over the distinction. Why is this? Dhyāna itself has both a shared and an unshared sense, and pāramitā is likewise both shared and unshared. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says: "In the grammar of the Indian language, whenever any undertaking is brought to completion, it is called pāramitā."

Second, its etymological translation: this too has two parts — translating the shared name; and translating the unshared name. First, translating the shared name — that is, "dhyāna" itself. This also has two parts: giving the direct translation of the name; and explaining it. First, as to the direct translation of the shared name: "dhyāna" is a foreign word, and its translation here is not fixed. Here we give, in brief, three renderings: first, the Mahāyāna treatise translates "dhyāna," in the language of the Qin dynasty, as "contemplative cultivation" (思惟修); second, by analogy — just as dāna-pāramitā is rendered "the perfection of giving," so dhyāna-pāramitā is rendered "the perfection of concentration," from which it can be known that "concentration" is used to translate "dhyāna"; third, the Abhidharma texts translate "dhyāna" as "the grove of merit and virtue."

Second, explaining these three renderings: this too has two parts — taken separately, and taken together. Taken separately: the rendering "contemplative cultivation" may be matched to the cause. Why is this? "Contemplation" names the thought that deliberates and weighs; "cultivation" names single-minded, focused practice — hence it is matched to the cause of cultivation. The rendering of "dhyāna" as "concentration" may be matched to the fruit. Why is this? "Concentration" names stillness and silence; the practitioner leaves the scattered mind behind to seek stillness, and once stillness is attained and abided in, the original practice is answered — hence it is matched to the fruit. The rendering of "dhyāna" as "the grove of merit and virtue" may be matched to cause and fruit together: "merit" is effort, and so is matched to the cause; effort accumulated becomes virtue, and so may be matched to the fruit — just as the ten thousand practices are matched to the cause and the ten thousand virtues to the fruit. Cause and fruit are translated together, and so it is called "the grove of merit and virtue," an image that shows merit and virtue to be not merely one thing. Why is this so? Just as many blades of grass gathered together are called a "thicket," and many trees relying on one another are called a "forest" — the thicket of grass is small, and so may be likened to the small merit within the cause; the forest of trees is large, and so may be matched to the great virtue upon the fruit. Reasoned through in this way, "the grove of merit and virtue" matches both cause and fruit together, and is convenient in meaning.

Second, explaining "dhyāna" as a whole, the three renderings all match both cause and fruit together. Why is this? Although "contemplative cultivation" is said to be based on the cause, it can also be matched to the fruit. Why is this? Stillness and reflection within concentration are themselves contemplation; "riding what is higher to benefit what is lower" is what is called cultivation. This can be classed together with the sense of "riding what is higher" among the Ābhidharmikas' nine kinds of cultivation, and so "contemplation" can also be spoken of within the fruit. That "concentration" can also be spoken of within the cause: just as, among the ten mental factors of the great wholesome ground, even a scattered mind can still be called "concentrated" to some degree — how much more so a practitioner who has gathered the mind single-mindedly, holding to the one without scattering? Hence it can be known that "concentration" too may be spoken of within the cause. That "the grove of merit and virtue" can also be named within the cause: the sense of "merit" within the cause has already been explained above — through the exertion of effort, the virtue of the practice-cause is thereby accomplished. The sense of "virtue" within the fruit is likewise as explained above. What is called "merit" is precisely functioning effect: upon the fruit there is the function of still, error-free tranquility and of supernormal transformation that benefits beings — hence it is called "merit." Both cause and fruit are, in every case, accomplished by a multitude of wholesome merits and virtues — hence, taken together, they are called "the grove of merit and virtue."

Furthermore, the various sūtras and treatises render the name and establish its meaning differently — some say "dhyāna" means "abandoning evil"; some say "swift and great," "swiftly abiding," or "greatly abiding." Since the renderings differ from place to place in this way, one should not cling one-sidedly to any single one.

Second, translating the unshared name. The unshared name is "pāramitā" itself, and this too has two parts: translating the name; and explaining it. As to translating the name, here in brief are three differing renderings: first, most sūtras and treatises render it as "gone to the other shore"; second, the Mahāyāna treatise gives the distinct rendering "the completion of the task"; third, the Sūtra of Auspicious Manifestations renders it as "crossing to the limitless."

Second, explaining these three renderings: this too has two parts — taken separately, and taken together. All of them correspond to the name and meaning of either phenomenal conduct or principle. First, taken separately: "gone to the other shore" — birth-and-death is this shore, nirvāṇa is the other shore, and affliction is the current running between them. The bodhisattva, by means of signless and wondrous wisdom, rides the vessel of dhyāna-concentration, crossing from this shore of birth-and-death to the other shore of nirvāṇa. Hence it can be known that this explains pāramitā in terms of principle and concentration. "The completion of the task" — this is the bodhisattva's great compassion, cultivating every practical conduct on behalf of sentient beings to its full completion. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says: "Through dhyāna, the bodhisattva is able to bring every task to completion; when dhyāna is held within the bodhisattva's mind, it is called pāramitā." This explains pāramitā in terms of phenomenal conduct. "Crossing to the limitless" — taken to cover both phenomenal conduct and principle together, both have the sense of the profound and far-reaching, and taken jointly, it is therefore called "crossing to the limitless." This explains pāramitā in terms of phenomenal conduct and principle both being fulfilled.

Second, explaining the three renderings taken together: all three can equally be said to correspond to both phenomenal conduct and principle, both following conditions to transform beings — hence different names are established for them. Why is this? If it is said that signless wisdom alone can cross birth-and-death, and this is therefore taken to be a matter of principle — yet within principle itself, whether a buddha appears or not, nature and characteristic remain ever the same; how, then, could one speak of signless wisdom crossing birth-and-death at all? In the end this too is a statement made in terms of phenomenal conduct. As for "the completion of the task" also being a name established from principle: if phenomenal conduct arises in dependence on principle, one should know that speaking of "the completion of the task" is also, in terms of principle, naming pāramitā as "crossing to the limitless" — nor need it be assumed that "crossing to the limitless" names pāramitā exclusively in terms of phenomenal conduct and principle taken together, either. Why is this? The buddhas, following conditions to benefit beings, appear and withdraw without any fixed pattern; "the limitless" sometimes corresponds to phenomenal conduct, sometimes to principle — how could there be any fixed rule? One should know that these three names interpenetrate between principle and phenomenal conduct, and need not be assigned one-sidedly to only one or the other; the remaining cases may be understood by the same logic. The meaning of pāramitā will be explained fully further below, in the tenth topic, where the treatise is gathered together and its destination pointed out.

Third, resolving points of doubt. As the Mahāyāna treatise says: "Question: Why are the liberations, the stations of mastery, the totality-bases, and the like not called pāramitā, while dhyāna alone is called pāramitā? Answer: Dhyāna is greatest of all, like a king; when we speak of 'dhyāna-pāramitā,' everything is thereby included. Within the four dhyānas are contained the eight liberations, the eight stations of mastery, the ten totality-bases, the four immeasurable minds, the five supernormal powers, the refining of dhyāna, the sovereign concentrations, the fourteen transformation-minds, the concentration free of contention, wish-wisdom, the summit-dhyānas, the Śūraṅgama and other samādhis — a hundred and eight of these — together with the buddhas' own samādhis, the unshakeable, and the rest — a hundred and twenty of these — all are contained within dhyāna. Since whatever sublime and wondrous merit belongs to the buddhas' accomplishing the path, turning the wheel of the Dharma, and entering nirvāṇa is, without exception, contained within dhyāna, to speak of dhyāna is to include everything; but to speak of any other concentration leaves something not included. Hence dhyāna alone receives the name pāramitā.

Furthermore: within the four dhyānas, wisdom and concentration are equal, and so it is called pāramitā. In the 'not-yet-arrived' state and in the intermediate dhyāna, wisdom is greater and concentration lesser; in the four formless absorptions, concentration is greater and wisdom lesser — like a cart-wheel, one part strong and the other weak, unable to bear its load. Since the four dhyānas have wisdom and concentration equal, they are called pāramitā.

Furthermore: to speak of pāramitā in terms of dhyāna is to include every concentration whatsoever. Why is this? 'Dhyāna,' in the language of the Qin dynasty, means 'contemplative cultivation' — and every one of these concentrations is, without exception, accomplished through the merit of contemplative cultivation."

One should know from this that every concentration can, in fact, receive the name pāramitā. As the Larger Sūtra speaks of a hundred pāramitās, and also says that the liberations, the stations of mastery, and the rest are all called pāramitā — it is only that the four root dhyānas, being the foundation, receive the name first, not that the name fails to extend to the other concentrations as well.

Question: In the foregoing, "dhyāna," "concentration," "samādhi," and "pāramitā" have all been explained — are they the same, or different? Answer: Taken as a whole, their names and meanings interconnect; taken individually, each of these four terms has its own proper referent. Why is this? The root four dhyānas are called only "dhyāna" — not "concentration" or "samādhi," nor are they called "pāramitā." The formless absorptions are called only "concentration" — not "dhyāna" or "samādhi," nor are they called "pāramitā." The "not-yet-arrived" dhyāna and the intermediate dhyāna, though not concentration proper, being expedient means, may be called either "dhyāna" or "concentration," but not "samādhi," nor are they called "pāramitā." Emptiness, signlessness, and the like are called only "samādhi" — not "dhyāna" or "concentration," nor are they called "pāramitā." The liberations, the stations of mastery, the six supernormal powers, the four unhindered eloquences, and the like possess all three qualities of dhyāna, concentration, and samādhi, and yet are not called "dhyāna," "concentration," or "samādhi," nor are they "pāramitā." The nine sequential concentrations possess all three qualities, but are called only "concentration" — not "dhyāna" or "samādhi," nor are they "pāramitā." Dhyāna accompanied by both coarse and subtle discursive thought, together with the lion's-sport concentration, the transcendence concentration, the concentration free of contention, and the like, likewise possess all three qualities, but are called only "samādhi" — not "dhyāna" or "concentration," nor are they "pāramitā." Wish-wisdom, the summit-dhyānas, and the like possess all three qualities, but are called only "dhyāna" — not "concentration" or "samādhi," nor are they "pāramitā." The nine kinds of great dhyāna, the Śūraṅgama, and the like alone possess all four qualities together — they are called "dhyāna," called "concentration," and called "samādhi" all at once: this is precisely "pāramitā." And if the mind of Śūraṅgama is brought to bear within the three preceding categories, every one of them can then also be called "pāramitā" — this is why, among the hundred pāramitās, every dharma-gate whatsoever can be called pāramitā.

Here, in brief, the four terms have been distinguished as above. Since the great sages skillfully follow conditions to benefit beings, there is no fixed standard governing how they are explained — hence the various sūtras and treatises name things as they appear and recede, and their intent is not easily seen; one should not cling wrongly to any single reading. Yet the reason the sūtras and treatises most often explain pāramitā specifically in terms of dhyāna is that the root four dhyānas are the foundation of every practice: every inward practice and its merit is brought forth through the four dhyānas and abides in dependence on them — this is why dhyāna alone receives the name pāramitā.

Question: Does dhyāna-pāramitā have only this one name, or does it also go by other names? Answer: As the Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: "As for what is called buddha-nature, it has five names: it is also called Śūraṅgama, also called prajñā, also called the middle way, also called the vajra-samādhi of great nirvāṇa, and also called dhyāna-pāramitā — and this is precisely buddha-nature." From this it can be known that the various sublime and wondrous dharma-gates spoken of, under measureless different names, throughout the rest of the sūtras are all alternate names for dhyāna-pāramitā. Hence the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"Prajñā is a single Dharma; the Buddha speaks of it under many names,
Following the type of each sentient being, distinct terms are established for it.
If a person attains prajñā, every idly theorizing mind is extinguished at once,
Just as, when the sun rises, the morning dew vanishes all together."
Reasoning by this same kind of logic, how could the name "dhyāna" not extend everywhere? If dhyāna-concentration did not, in its completeness, include every dharma whatsoever, it would not be ultimate — how, then, could it be entitled to the meaning of "pāramitā"?

Question: The true reality of all dharmas, the Śūraṅgama, "gone to the other shore," and the like are said to be ultimate only in the Buddha alone — how, then, can the dhyāna-concentration practiced by a bodhisattva be called pāramitā? Answer: Because the fruit is spoken of within the cause; because it is spoken of according to one's own portion of the path; because, as the sudden teaching makes clear, the arising of the mind at the very start and its ultimate completion are, in the end, not two different things — for these and many similar reasons, the dhyāna-concentration practiced by a bodhisattva can indeed also be called pāramitā.

The practitioner who has skillfully traced the name thereby comes to know its essence. But to actually advance in cultivation, one must enter through a gate. Here, then, the gates of dhyāna are briefly clarified, under three headings: first, stating the gates; second, explaining them; third, resolving points of doubt.

First, stating the gates: if one traces the gates of dhyāna spoken of throughout the sūtras and treatises, they are limitless in number — but tracing them to their root, they do not exceed two: namely, form, and mind. As the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"Among all dharmas whatsoever, there is only name and form;
If one wishes to observe reality as it truly is, one should likewise observe name and form.
Though a confused mind conceives many notions, discriminating among the various dharmas,
There is not a single dharma that goes beyond name and form."

Now, within the gate of form, this opens further into two, as the sūtra says: "There are two gates to the deathless: first, the gate of the contemplation of impurity; second, the gate of mindfulness of the breath." The gate of mind is a single gate alone, as the sūtra says: "The ability to contemplate the nature of mind is called the supreme concentration." Opening form apart and establishing mind separately, the gates of dhyāna thus number three: namely, the gate of worldly dhyāna; the gate of world-transcending dhyāna; and the gate of dhyāna transcending the world and beyond. Hence the Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra says: "There are three kinds of gathering the mind: first, gathering the mind through the dharma of emergence; second, gathering the mind through the dharma of extinction; third, gathering the mind through the dharma that is neither emergence nor extinction."

Second, explaining them. Within these three gates, each in turn has two aspects: taken separately, and taken together. First, explaining the gates separately: "gate" means what allows passage through, just as a worldly gate allows a person passage through to wherever they are going.

First, taking the breath as the gate of dhyāna: if the mind is gathered by means of the breath, it can pass through to the four dhyānas, the four formless absorptions, the four immeasurable minds, the sixteen special excellences, the thorough-and-bright concentrations, and the like — this is the gate of worldly dhyāna, also called "gathering the mind through the dharma of emergence." This, broadly speaking, belongs to the dhyāna-gate of ordinary people.

Second, taking form as the gate of dhyāna: if the mind is gathered through the contemplation of impurity and the like, it can pass through to the nine contemplations, the eight recollections, the ten contemplations, the liberations, the stations of mastery, the totality-bases, the sequential concentrations, the lion's-sport samādhi, the transcendence samādhi, and the like — this is the gate of world-transcending dhyāna, also called "gathering the mind through the dharma of extinction." This, broadly speaking, belongs to the dhyāna-gate of the two lesser vehicles.

Third, taking mind as the gate of dhyāna: if wisdom is used to turn contemplation back upon the nature of mind itself, it can pass through to the great samādhis of the Lotus, of buddha-recollection, of pratyutpanna, of awareness, of Śūraṅgama, and the like, together with the samādhi of self-nature, up through the pure-and-undefiled samādhi — this is the gate of dhyāna transcending the world and beyond, also called "gathering the mind through the dharma that is neither emergence nor extinction." This, broadly speaking, belongs to the dhyāna-gate of the bodhisattva. It is for this reason that these three things are taken as the gates.

Question: The dharmas are limitless in number — why take only these three as the gates of dhyāna? Answer: Here, in brief, there are three reasons why these three things are established as gates: first, because they match the very mark of what a living being is; second, because they are convenient and easy to follow; third, because they encompass every dharma completely.

First, because they match the very mark of what a living being is: as the Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra says, at the stage of the kalala — the earliest embryonic stage — three things are already present: life, warmth, and consciousness. The breath, going out and coming in, is called "life." Not decaying and not putrefying is called "warmth" — this is because karma sustains the fire element, so that the earth, water, and other elements of form do not decay or putrefy. Mind and intention here are called "consciousness" — that is, the mind that is aware moment by moment. These three things, joined together, carry a being from birth through growth, neither increasing nor decreasing — yet the foolish and unenlightened, failing to understand this, wrongly conceive of a self, a person, and sentient beings within it, carry out every kind of karmic action, give rise to a defiled and attached mind, and, through inverted causes and conditions, come and go through the three realms. If one traces this to its very source, it never goes beyond these three things — hence these three are taken as the gates, neither more nor fewer.

Second, because they are convenient and easy to follow, these three things are established as gates: cultivating dhyāna by means of the breath brings two conveniences — first, concentration is quickly attained; second, impermanence is easily realized. Taking form as the gate likewise brings two conveniences — first, craving and desire can be severed; second, what is illusory and unreal is easily understood. Taking mind as the gate likewise brings two conveniences — first, every affliction can be subdued; second, the principle of emptiness is easily realized.

Third, because they encompass every dharma completely: these three things are the root of every gate of dhyāna. Why is this? Taking the essentials, only three are named — but opened out, they are limitless. Within the gate of the breath, there is counting, following, and at times observing the breath directly — these are not one single thing, and where they lead also differs. Within the gate of form, there is taking an external form as the object, taking an internal form as the object, cultivating loving-kindness and compassion, taking the Buddha's marks as the object, and further, attaining understanding through the contemplation of reality — these too are not one single thing, and where they lead also differs. Within the gate of mind, there is śamatha and vipaśyanā, awareness and clear knowing, becoming clearly aware that every mind enters into "not-mind," becoming clearly aware that "not-mind" gives rise to measureless minds, or becoming clearly aware that it is neither "not-mind" nor "not not-mind," able to know that every mind is not a fixed mind — taking the mind as object in these various ways, where they lead is likewise not one single thing. Hence it is said that these three gates encompass every gate of dhyāna whatsoever. This matter will only become fully visible further below, in the seventh and eighth topics, where cultivation and realization are explained.

Second, explaining the three gates taken together: these three things can, in fact, each serve as the gate of worldly dhyāna, world-transcending dhyāna, or dhyāna transcending the world and beyond alike. Why is this?

First, the method of the breath is not fixed to belonging only to the gate of worldly dhyāna. How can this be known? As in the Vinaya, where the Buddha teaches his śrāvaka disciples the sixteen practices of observing the breath, and the disciples, cultivating in accordance with this teaching, all attain the noble path — hence it can be known that this is also the gate of world-transcending dhyāna. That it is also the Mahāyāna gate can be seen from the Larger Sūtra, which says: "Mindfulness of the breath is itself the bodhisattva's Mahāyāna." Hence the Sūtra of Invoking Avalokiteśvara explains the six-syllable formula in terms of counting the breath, clarifying how all three vehicles attain the path through it — how, then, could this be merely the gate of worldly dhyāna?

Second, taking form as the gate cannot be said to belong only to the practice of the two lesser vehicles, without extending to the Mahāyāna, or to ordinary people and non-Buddhist practitioners. Why is this? As the Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: "Non-Buddhist practitioners can only treat form, and cannot treat mind; my own disciples treat mind well." Hence it can be known that ordinary people, too, can contemplate form. That the Mahāyāna also contemplates form can be seen from the Larger Sūtra, which says: "The contemplation of swelling, the contemplation of putrefaction, and the like are themselves the bodhisattva's Mahāyāna." How, then, could this be merely the gate of world-transcending dhyāna?

Third, taking mind as the gate cannot be said to belong only to bodhisattvas. Why is this? Non-Buddhist practitioners, too, contemplate mind and give rise to the forty-eight wrong views from it; ordinary people take mind as the object and enter the four formless absorptions; and as for its extending to the śrāvakas, the Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: "Because my disciples treat mind well, they are able to leave the three realms behind." How, then, could this be only the gate of dhyāna transcending the world and beyond? One should know that these three gates interpenetrate one another — it is only that, because the three kinds of practitioners use the mind differently, the dhyāna they give rise to, and the path they attain, likewise each differ. This point will be explained fully further below, in the ninth topic, where the teachings arising from dhyāna-pāramitā are clarified.

Third, resolving points of doubt about the gates taken together and taken separately. Question: If this is so, why were they distinguished separately before? Answer: In every matter of doctrine, there is both a general and a specific way of taking it; the gate of teaching, matched to the occasion, benefits beings differently — there is no fault in giving differing accounts. Furthermore, what was said before is not a statement of fully complete meaning, and should not be clung to as fixed.

Question: If the three gates interpenetrate one another, then if a practitioner, in actual practice, learns by counting the breath, can this bring realization of the nine contemplations, the eight liberations, the samādhi of self-nature, and the like? Answer: it may or may not. A beginner cannot; one of the two lesser vehicles who has mastered sovereign concentration can; a bodhisattva complete in the pāramitā of skillful means can move among them freely, without hindrance.

Question: Why is it said that a beginner cannot? Yet there are those who, counting the breath, give rise to the nine contemplations, the liberations, or a mind of buddha-recollection and loving-kindness — how, then, is this to be understood? Answer: This arises from an impure root-condition from a past life; realization is attained through practice, but once that root-condition is exhausted, it fades away and does not advance further, and in the end does not accomplish the sequential dharma-gates. This will be explained fully further below, in the inner expedient means, where the marks of wholesome roots arising are clarified. The remaining two gates may be understood by the same kind of reasoning.

End of Fascicle One, Upper Part, of the Shi Chan Boluomi Cidi Famen.

Explaining the Sequential Dharma-Gates of Dhyāna-Pāramitā, Fascicle One, Lower Part
Spoken by the Great Master Zhiyi of Tiantai, of the Sui dynasty
Recorded by his disciple Fashen
Revised and edited by his disciple Guanding

The practitioner, having now understood the mark of the gates of dhyāna, should also understand this: that from a bodhisattva's very first arising of the mind through to buddhahood, the cultivation of dhyāna-concentration proceeds from the shallow to the deep, through graduated stages and sequence. Here, in brief, the intent of the sūtras and treatises is drawn together to compile this sequence — hence the Larger Sūtra says: "The bodhisattva-mahāsattva practices in sequence, studies in sequence, and walks the path in sequence." Distinguishing the sequence of dhyāna-concentration has two parts: first, rightly clarifying the sequence of the various dhyānas; second, distinguishing what is not sequential.

First, rightly explaining the meaning of the sequence of the various dhyānas: the practitioner, beginning from pure moral discipline, grows weary of the desire realm, fixes the mind in mindfulness, and cultivates ānāpāna, entering the concentration of the desire realm. In dependence on the concentration of the desire realm, the "not-yet-arrived" state is attained; and in dependence on that, the first dhyāna is attained in sequence, on up through the fourth dhyāna — this is called the inward concentration of the form realm. Next, for the sake of great merit, taking external sentient beings as the object, receiving joy and delight, the four immeasurable minds are attained in sequence — this is called the outward concentration of the form realm. These eight kinds of concentration, though they take inward or outward objects and differ in how concentration is entered, all belong to the form realm.

The practitioner, within the fourth dhyāna, grows weary of form as though it were a prison, extinguishes the two prior kinds of form, inward and outward, and, with a single mind, takes emptiness as the object; having thus crossed over the difficulty of form, the concentration of the four formless bases is attained — this is called the concentration of the formless realm. These twelve gates of dhyāna are all contaminated dharmas.

Next, what is both contaminated and uncontaminated dhyāna should be clarified. Once the practitioner has attained the root dhyānas, in order to remove the views and attachments found within them, one returns again, from the desire realm, to cultivate the six wondrous gates. Why is this? Among these six gates, counting, following, and stilling are the expedient means for entering concentration; contemplating, returning, and purifying are the expedient means of wisdom. Concentration is what is craved, wisdom is what spurs one onward — because it is craved, it is called "contaminated"; because it spurs one on, it is called "uncontaminated." These six practices are, for the most part, complete within the desire realm, the "not-yet-arrived" state, and the four dhyānas, though some extend up to the formless bases as well.

Next, the sixteen special excellences should be clarified: taken across, they correspond to the four foundations of mindfulness; taken down through the stages, they run from the desire realm all the way to the peak of existence — but because contemplation is established and analysis carried out stage by stage, they are able to give rise to the uncontaminated. Next, the thorough-and-bright contemplation should be explained: the sixteen special excellences just given contemplate as a whole, and so are coarse; the thorough-and-bright contemplation contemplates each part separately, and so is fine. This dhyāna, too, runs from the desire realm all the way to the peak of existence, up through entering the concentration of cessation. These three kinds of dhyāna are also called "pure dhyānas," and, among the five kinds of dhyāna, still belong to the category of the root attainments.

Now, as for the mark of the sequence of uncontaminated dhyāna, there are two distinct aspects: first, the sequence of practice-conduct; second, the sequence of wisdom-conduct. The sequence of practice-conduct is what is called observing, refining, perfuming, and mastering.

First, clarifying the sequence of observing dhyāna: there are six kinds of dhyāna here. First, the nine contemplations are cultivated — prior to the uncontaminated, these serve as the antidote, breaking the afflictions of the desire realm. Next, the eight recollections, to remove the fear that arises while cultivating the nine contemplations. Next, the ten contemplations — practitioners of the "destructible-dharma" type cultivate these ten contemplations within the desire realm, severing the afflictions of the three realms. Next, the eight liberations — practitioners of the "indestructible-dharma" type cultivate this observing dhyāna, as an antidote to the views and attachments found within the root concentrations of the three realms. Next, the eight stations of mastery are clarified, for the sake of gaining mastery over the objects observed within the various concentrations. Next, the ten totality-bases are clarified, in order to make form and mind pervasive throughout concentration. And on up through the cultivation of the six supernormal powers — all of these belong to observing dhyāna.

Next, clarifying refining dhyāna: the nine sequential concentrations serve as its overall name — the two prior kinds of dhyāna, concentration and observation, make the mind pliant and gentle, so that, when entering each dhyāna in turn, one mind-moment follows the next without any interval. The three samādhis — dhyāna accompanied by both coarse and subtle discursive thought, and the rest — also belong to refining dhyāna.

Next, clarifying perfuming dhyāna. Perfuming dhyāna is precisely the lion's-sport samādhi: entering and emerging from each dhyāna in turn, in forward and reverse sequence, perfuming every dhyāna in turn, so that concentration and observation both become clear and fully ripened, and merit is increased.

Next, clarifying mastering dhyāna. Mastering dhyāna is precisely the transcendence samādhi: transcending, entering, and emerging among the various dhyānas, in order to attain unobstructed, self-mastered liberation.

Hence the Larger Sūtra says: "The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, abiding in the perfection of wisdom, takes up dhyāna-pāramitā. Setting aside the buddhas' own samādhis, they enter every other samādhi — whether the śrāvaka's samādhi, the pratyekabuddha's samādhi, or the bodhisattva's samādhi — practicing and entering all of them alike." "Every other samādhi" refers to the root concentrations. The "śrāvaka's samādhi" refers to the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, the three samādhis of emptiness and signlessness, and the sixteen aspects of the four truths. The "pratyekabuddha's samādhi" refers to the samādhi on the twelve links of dependent origination. The "bodhisattva's samādhi" refers to the samādhi of self-nature and the like — all of these are called samādhi.

The bodhisattva, abiding in these various samādhis, enters and emerges from the eight liberations in forward and reverse order; in dependence on the eight liberations, enters and emerges from the nine sequential concentrations in forward and reverse order; in dependence on the nine sequential concentrations, enters and emerges from the lion's-sport samādhi in forward and reverse order; and in dependence on the lion's-sport samādhi, enters and emerges from the transcendence samādhi in forward and reverse order. It is by depending on these various samādhis that the bodhisattva attains the equal characteristics of all dharmas. Only up to this point does the practice of the two lesser vehicles coincide with the bodhisattva's own, dhyāna held fully in common between them. Why is this? Because even the great arhat can also attain the transcendence samādhi.

Second, clarifying the mark of the sequence of uncontaminated wisdom-conduct. Upon hearing the Four Noble Truths, one cultivates the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment; next enters the three gates of liberation; next uses the sixteen aspects of contemplation to distinguish the Four Noble Truths; next becomes complete in the ten kinds of knowledge and the three uncontaminated faculties, accomplishing the nine kinds of cultivation and attaining the nine severances. This is, in brief, the uncontaminated wisdom-conduct practiced by the śrāvaka. Next should be explained the gate of contemplating the twelve links of dependent origination, which is the uncontaminated wisdom-conduct practiced by the pratyekabuddha.

As for the bodhisattva accomplishing, in sequence, the knowledge and severance attained by both the trainees and the adepts of the two lesser vehicles — this is called "entering emptiness by way of the provisional," complete with thorough contemplation. Hence the Larger Sūtra says: "The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, practicing the perfection of wisdom, by the power of skillful means, passes from the ground of dry wisdom, into the ground of conforming nature, the ground of the eighth-stage practitioner, the ground of vision, the ground free of desire, the ground of the arhat, and the ground of the pratyekabuddha — practicing and entering every one of them, yet without taking hold of their realization."

Next, clarifying the sequence of dhyāna unshared with the two lesser vehicles, proper to the bodhisattva alone: first, the samādhi of self-nature; second, the samādhi of every meaning; third, the difficult samādhi; fourth, the samādhi of every gate; fifth, the samādhi of the good person; sixth, the samādhi of every practice; seventh, the samādhi that removes affliction; eighth, the samādhi of joy in this life and lives to come; ninth, the pure-and-undefiled samādhi. In dependence on these dhyānas, the bodhisattva attains the fruit of great bodhi, complete with the ten powers, the four kinds of fearlessness, the eighteen unshared qualities, and the whole of the buddhadharma.

This, then, briefly clarifies how the bodhisattva, from the very first arising of the mind, cultivates dhyāna, practicing in sequence, studying in sequence, walking the path in sequence, all the way to the ground of buddhahood — called abiding within the deep cave of dhyāna-concentration that is great nirvāṇa. This point will be treated in full only further below, where the seventh topic explains cultivation and realization, and the eighth reveals the fruits and rewards.

Question: That a great bodhisattva, in order to penetrate the shallow and deep among the various dhyānas and become complete in the whole buddhadharma, practices in sequence and studies in sequence — this may indeed be said as above. But when a practitioner is first learning dhyāna, should they always cultivate strictly according to this sequence, or is this not necessarily so? Answer: What has just been said is meant only to clarify the shallow-to-deep pattern among the various dhyānas in a general way, this sequence given only in broad outline. As for a beginning student, they should follow whatever they find most inclined toward and easiest to apply as an antidote. One for whom entering nirvāṇa comes easily may cultivate starting from whichever preliminary gate among the various dhyānas' expedient means suits them, without necessarily having to follow the sequence given above step by step. This point will be treated fully further below, within the inner expedient means, in the gate of dhyāna for settling the mind.

Second, distinguishing what is not sequential. Question: Is the bodhisattva's cultivation of dhyāna always sequential, or is there also a cultivation of dhyāna that is not sequential? Answer: This can be sorted into four: first, clarifying what is sequential; second, clarifying what is not sequential; third, clarifying what is sequential-then-not-sequential; fourth, clarifying what is not-sequential-then-sequential.

What is sequential is as explained above — the Larger Sūtra says: "The bodhisattva practices in sequence, studies in sequence, and walks the path in sequence." What is not sequential: the bodhisattva who cultivates the Lotus samādhi, the samādhi of a single practice, and the like, contemplating the equal dharma-realm as neither deep nor shallow — this is called not sequential. As the Sūtra of Measureless Meanings says: "Walking the great, direct road, with nothing left to hinder it."

What is sequential-then-not-sequential: as in the Larger Sūtra, where Subhūti addresses the Buddha, saying: "Should one practice prajñā with a sequential mind, give rise to prajñā, and cultivate prajñā?" The Buddha tells Subhūti: "Because one is never apart from omniscience, one thereby practices prajñā, gives rise to prajñā, and cultivates prajñā."

What is not-sequential-then-sequential: as when Subhūti addresses the Buddha, saying: "If all dharmas whatsoever are without any nature of their own, how can a bodhisattva pass from one ground to the next?" The Buddha tells Subhūti: "Precisely because all dharmas are empty, the bodhisattva is able to pass from one ground to the next."

Question: These four statements have just been given in terms of the bodhisattva — do they also apply to the two lesser vehicles? Answer: The two lesser vehicles can also be spoken of in this same way. Why is this? It is known that there are śrāvakas who, from their very first arising of the mind, practice practice-conduct, cultivating from the root first dhyāna onward, all the way to the transcendence dhyāna, only then attaining the fruit of arhatship — this is what is sequential. There are also śrāvakas who, upon simply hearing the words "welcome, come forth," become complete all at once in the three insights, the eight liberations, and the rest — this is what is not sequential. There are also śrāvakas who, while cultivating practice-conduct in sequence, make use of wisdom-conduct at the same time, skillfully contemplating the emptiness of the nature of that very sequence, from the first mind onward, all the way to attaining arhatship — this is called sequential-then-not-sequential. Fourth, there are also śrāvakas who, from the very first arising of the mind, cultivate wisdom-conduct directly, give rise to the lightning-flash samādhi, and attain the four fruits without yet being complete in the full range of dhyānas — and then, wishing to fulfill conditioned merit completely, cultivate the five kinds of dhyāna-concentration in sequence to completion — this is precisely what is not-sequential-then-sequential. This point will become clear of itself once the seventh topic, explaining cultivation and realization, and the eighth, revealing the fruits and rewards, and the rest of the ten topics are complete.

Now that the sequence of the various dhyānas has been briefly explained, the mark of the dharma and the mind within these dhyānas should also be known. Here, in clarifying dharma and mind, there are three parts: first, distinguishing dharma; second, clarifying mind; third, discriminating and settling the distinction between dharma and mind.

First, distinguishing dharma: dharma is of four kinds — first, contaminated dharma; second, uncontaminated dharma; third, both contaminated and uncontaminated dharma; fourth, neither contaminated nor uncontaminated dharma.

First, contaminated dharma: this refers to the ten wholesome deeds, the root four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds taken with sentient beings as their object, and the four formless concentrations. Why is this? These twelve gates of dhyāna are not, in their own nature, dharmas of contemplative wisdom, and so are unable to illuminate and sever the afflictions.

Second, uncontaminated dharma: this refers to the nine contemplations, the eight recollections, the ten contemplations, the liberations, the stations of mastery, the totality-bases, the sequential concentrations, the lion's-sport and transcendence samādhis, the sixteen aspects of the Four Noble Truths, the samādhi on the twelve links of dependent origination taken together with the four immeasurable minds, the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, the three samādhis, and on through wish-wisdom, the summit-dhyānas, the eleven kinds of knowledge, the three uncontaminated faculties, and the other uncontaminated concentrations. Why is this? Within all these dhyānas there is, in every case, an antidote at work, contemplative wisdom complete, able to sever the three contaminants.

Third, both contaminated and uncontaminated dharma: this refers to the six wondrous gates, the sixteen special excellences, the thorough-and-bright contemplation, and the like. Why is this? Although these three kinds of dhyāna do contain contemplative wisdom as an antidote, its power and function are weak, and so they are called both contaminated and uncontaminated.

Fourth, neither contaminated nor uncontaminated dharma: this refers to the Lotus samādhi, the buddha-recollection samādhi of pratyutpanna, the hundred and eight samādhis beginning with the Śūraṅgama, the nine dhyānas beginning with the samādhi of self-nature, and on through unconditioned great loving-kindness and great compassion, the ten pāramitās, the four unhindered wisdoms, the eighteen emptinesses, the ten powers, the four kinds of fearlessness, the eighteen unshared qualities, the wisdom that knows all things in every mode, and the like. Why is this? Cultivating these dharmas does not fall into either extreme — hence they are called neither contaminated nor uncontaminated dharma.

Question: Why is it said that the Lotus samādhi and dharmas like it are all called "neither contaminated nor uncontaminated"? As the Lotus Sūtra itself says: "This Bodhisattva Store of Virtue has already penetrated the mind of the uncontaminated true reality; next he shall become a buddha, named Pure Body." And likewise, among the four kinds of fearlessness, the second is called "the fearlessness of the uncontaminated." Dharmas of this kind are, in most sūtras and treatises, spoken of simply as uncontaminated — why, then, is it now said that they are all "neither contaminated nor uncontaminated"?

Answer: This is meant to set apart the unshared dharma of the middle way possessed by the buddhas and bodhisattvas, and so this distinction must be made. Just as ordinary people rely exclusively on the contaminated, and the two lesser vehicles practice one-sidedly in the uncontaminated — the unshared dharma attained by the buddhas and bodhisattvas does not become fixed in either extreme, and so has no leakage into either extreme, and is therefore, in every case, called "uncontaminated." How is leakage into either extreme avoided? Precisely because the dharma of the middle way is not contained within either extreme — hence it is called "neither contaminated nor uncontaminated." These two ways of putting it differ in wording but agree in meaning, and so there is no contradiction between them.

If one argues purely in terms of principle, then everything whatsoever may be called "neither contaminated nor uncontaminated" — hence the Larger Sūtra says: "Form has no bondage and no liberation, and so on up through the wisdom that knows all things in every mode, which likewise has no bondage and no liberation." Since principle itself has no bondage and no liberation, how could conduct that accords with principle not equally be called "without bondage, without liberation"? "Without bondage, without liberation" is simply another name for "neither contaminated nor uncontaminated."

Question: Sorting concentration and wisdom into this fourfold scheme is understandable enough — but what of precepts? Answer: From the ten wholesome deeds, the three refuges, the five precepts, the eight precepts of the fast-day, the śrāmaṇera's ten precepts, the full monk's two hundred and fifty precepts, and the bodhisattva's ten major and forty-eight minor precepts — these too can be sorted into this same fourfold scheme, though the full explanation will not be given here.

Question: Above, in the fourth topic, and further below, in the seventh topic distinguishing cultivation and realization, both first clarify the contaminated, next both contaminated and uncontaminated, next the uncontaminated, and next neither contaminated nor uncontaminated. Why, in sorting this fourfold scheme here, does the order differ, placing what was third now second? Answer: The order given before and after is arranged in terms of the sequence of cultivation entering realization. Here, in wishing to distinguish the mark of dharma and mind as a matter of exposition, the order is arranged for convenience of statement instead. This is likewise how the various sūtras and treatises state this fourfold scheme in general — hence it is said, "the time of practice is not the time of exposition, and the time of exposition is not the time of practice" — this point is easily understood.

Second, clarifying mind: mind is of four kinds — first, contaminated mind; second, uncontaminated mind; third, both contaminated and uncontaminated mind; fourth, neither contaminated nor uncontaminated mind.

First, contaminated mind: this is precisely the mind of the ordinary person and the non-Buddhist practitioner, complete with the three contaminants — hence it is called contaminated mind. Why is this? When ordinary people and non-Buddhist practitioners cultivate dhyāna-concentration, this can be distinguished across four moments, in none of which are they able to leave the fetters and contaminants behind. What are these four moments? First, at the very moment the mind first arises, wishing to cultivate dhyāna, they are unable to grow weary of the world, seeking instead the pleasure and the fruit found within dhyāna-concentration. Second, at the moment of actually cultivating it, they are unable to turn contemplation back upon themselves, and a mind of views and attachment arises. Third, at the moment of realizing the various dhyānas, they take them at once to be real, not knowing them to be illusory and deceptive, so that a mind of views and attachment arises at every single stage. Fourth, upon emerging from dhyāna-concentration, when facing the various objects of the world, the fetters and karma arise once again. For these reasons, this is called a contaminated mind.

Second, clarifying uncontaminated mind: this too is distinguished across four moments. First, as to the arising of the mind: when a follower of the two lesser vehicles first sets the mind on cultivating dhyāna, they grow weary of the world, taking no delight in the pleasure of dhyāna or in seeking its fruit, but cultivate only to tame the mind — the contaminated mind then naturally grows faint of itself and does not arise, and through this the uncontaminated can be brought forth. Second, as to practicing: whatever dhyāna is cultivated, it is entirely known to be illusory and unreal, so that views and attachment can be subdued, and fetters and karma do not arise. Third, as to attaining realization: at the moment of entering the various concentrations, if true wisdom of emptiness is brought forth within concentration, severing every affliction, then the three contaminants are forever exhausted. Fourth, upon emerging from dhyāna-concentration, whatever objects are faced, views and attachment do not arise, nor is any fettering karma produced. For these reasons, this is called uncontaminated mind. Though the first two moments are still, strictly speaking, contaminated, they serve as the cause of the uncontaminated — and since the fruit is spoken of within the cause, they too are called uncontaminated.

Third, clarifying mind that is both contaminated and uncontaminated: this too is distinguished across four moments. First, as to the arising of the mind: when this kind of practitioner first sets the mind on cultivating dhyāna, they waver, unsettled — at times growing weary of birth-and-death, taking no delight in the pleasure of dhyāna; at other times giving rise to views and attachment, longing for the bliss of concentration and delighting in its fruit. Because weariness arises, fettering karma is somewhat weakened; but because longing for the bliss of concentration arises, affliction grows. Second, as to practicing: take, for instance, a person who has not severed their wholesome roots and wishes to cultivate dhyāna — though such a person has accomplished the five factors beginning with faith, these cannot yet be called "faculties," since they are unable to fix and subdue the fetters — hence this is called "also contaminated." Yet because faith and the other wholesome factors have arisen, it is also called "also uncontaminated." Third, as to attaining realization: when the seven kinds of trainee enter the various dhyānas, though true wisdom is brought forth, the fetters and contaminants are not yet exhausted — hence this is called both contaminated and uncontaminated; the same holds even for the arhat liable to regression. Why is this? Since the wisdom of no-arising is not yet attained, it is called "also contaminated"; since the wisdom of exhaustion is attained, it is called "also uncontaminated." Fourth, when these various trainees emerge from dhyāna-concentration and face the various objects of the world, wherever the delusion they are severing is not yet exhausted, attachment may still arise there — hence this is called "also contaminated"; but wherever the delusion is already exhausted, though objects are faced, fettering karma does not arise — hence this is called "also uncontaminated."

Fourth, explaining mind that is neither contaminated nor uncontaminated: this too is clarified across four moments. First, as to the arising of the mind: when a great bodhisattva first sets the intention to cultivate dhyāna, it is neither for the sake of birth-and-death nor for the sake of nirvāṇa — so the mind does not fall into either extreme. Second, as to practicing: when the bodhisattva cultivates dhyāna-pāramitā, for the sake of merit they do not abide in the unconditioned, and for the sake of wisdom they do not abide in the conditioned. Third, as to attaining realization: when the bodhisattva enters the various dhyānas, if the wisdom of the forbearance of no-arising is brought forth within dhyāna, then the mind, at that moment, is in accord with the dharma-nature — neither attached to birth-and-death nor defiled by nirvāṇa. Fourth, when the bodhisattva emerges from dhyāna-concentration and faces the various objects of the world, the mind never relies on either the extreme of existence or the extreme of nonexistence. For these reasons, the bodhisattva's mind is called neither contaminated nor uncontaminated mind.

Third, resolving points about dharma and mind. Question: The buddhas teach that all dharmas are empty, cutting off every word and phrase — as the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse: "The perfection of wisdom is like a great blazing flame; it cannot be grasped from any of its four sides, since wrong views are burned away by it." Why, then, is a fourfold scheme now being set forth — is this not falling into idle theorizing?

Answer: Within the Buddhadharma, the emptiness that cannot be grasped is precisely what places no obstruction on any dharma whatsoever — it is because of this ungraspable emptiness that the whole Buddhadharma, the twelve divisions of scripture, can be spoken at all. There is no fault, then, in now speaking of a fourfold scheme. It is like empty space itself: though it possesses nothing at all, every single thing depends on it in order to grow and take form. As the Mahāyāna treatise says in verse:
"If one has faith that all dharmas are empty, this accords with principle;
If one lacks faith in the emptiness of dharmas, everything goes astray.
If, taking this 'nothing' to be emptiness, one concludes there is nothing to be done at all —
Then karma already exists before any action, and there is one who acts even without acting.
Such being the marks of all dharmas, who is there that could ever fully fathom them?
Only one who has attained a straightforward mind, whose every word rests on nothing at all,
Free of the views of existence and nonexistence, whose mind is naturally extinguished from within."

Here, in order to open up skillful understanding and insight for practitioners, the various dharma-gates are distinguished — hence, within what is without any conceptual content, conceptual content is nonetheless discerned, and this involves no fault in principle. Hence the Larger Sūtra says: "What is without conceptual content is itself the bodhisattva's own conceptual content." If you wish to seek liberation by leaving the fourfold scheme behind, you will only be bound instead by "no fourfold scheme." Why is this? For if one speaks of "having the fourfold scheme," "lacking the fourfold scheme," "both having and lacking it," or "neither having nor lacking it" — if you cannot even escape being bound by "lacking the fourfold scheme," how could you escape being bound by "both having and lacking" or the rest? One should know that liberation is attained by understanding that a concept is not fixed as a concept, remaining unobstructed within conceptual content itself — not by leaving concepts behind to seek some concept-free state and thereby attaining liberation. As the heavenly maiden rebuked Śāriputra, saying: "There is no such thing as speaking of liberation apart from the written word. The very nature of the written word being itself free of fixed self-nature is precisely the mark of liberation."

Furthermore: dharma and mind, taken together here, make eight statements; turned and distinguished further, they make thirty-six. If one traces through every dharma in fine detail, measureless statements emerge. And if one can, through a single statement about a single dharma, penetrate every statement whatsoever, then this analysis is as boundless as empty space itself.

Question: If this is so, why not sort dharma and mind each into five statements instead? Answer: When the buddhas appear in the world, teaching according to the occasion to transform beings, the gate of teaching is, for the most part, arranged around a fourfold scheme — as the Mahāyāna treatise explains, there are four kinds of siddhānta: first, the worldly siddhānta; second, the siddhānta for the individual; third, the siddhānta of the antidote; fourth, the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. Contaminated dharma-mind belongs to the worldly siddhānta; uncontaminated dharma-mind belongs to the siddhānta of the antidote; both contaminated and uncontaminated dharma-mind belongs to the siddhānta for the individual; neither contaminated nor uncontaminated dharma-mind belongs to the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. The sense in which each corresponds to the other can be seen by tracing it through in detail.

Furthermore, the Mahāyāna treatise, within the siddhānta of ultimate meaning itself, further distinguishes four approaches, as the treatise says in verse:
"Everything is real, everything is unreal,
Everything is both real and unreal,
Everything is neither real nor unreal —
All of these alike are called the true reality of all dharmas."
Statements of this kind number only four, with never a fifth. The present fourfold clarification of dharma and mind may be understood along the same lines. Where other sūtras and treatises do set forth a fivefold scheme for their own purposes, that has its own separate rationale; here, for the sake of a single, convenient approach, a fivefold division is not adopted.

Question: Among these four kinds of dharma-mind, what is the actual difference between dharma and mind? Take contaminated dharma and contaminated mind: are these each, individually, contaminated, or are they not? For if it is said that the contaminant belongs to each of the two separately, then when dharma and mind come together, two separate contaminated dharmas ought to arise; and if it belongs to neither separately, their union ought likewise to produce nothing.

Answer: One cannot say that both, taken separately, are contaminated, nor can one say that neither, taken separately, is contaminated at all. Why is this? If mind itself simply were the contaminant, then, just as at the moment an arhat's contaminants are exhausted the mind itself ought to be exhausted, so too should dharma be exhausted along with it. And why is this? If dharma were fixed as being, in itself, the contaminant, then a noble one entering the root four dhyānas ought also to give rise to the contaminant — since these four dhyāna-dharmas, prior to ever joining with mind, ought already to be contaminated in themselves. Yet a noble one entering the four dhyānas does not give rise to the contaminant at all; before the dharma of the four dhyānas has even come into accord with mind, no contaminated dharma arises there either — how, then, could dharma itself simply be the contaminant?

Here it is said that this contaminant belongs neither to dharma alone nor to mind alone — it is only when dharma and mind come together that the contaminant arises. And because there is a contaminant, both are given their respective names. It is like an elixir of immortality: when a person takes it, it grants them immortality — yet the elixir, and the person, are each, in themselves, neither one immortal. Only when elixir and person come together is there immortality at all. Hence the elixir receives the name "elixir of immortality," and the person receives the title "immortal." If the elixir did not depend on the person, it would not be called the elixir of immortality; if the person did not depend on the elixir, they would not be called an immortal. The contaminated dharma and the contaminated mind are exactly the same.

The remaining three kinds of dharma-mind may be understood along the same lines. Hence Ānanda, addressing the monks, spoke this verse for Śāriputra:
"All dharmas arise from conditions;
This dharma is spoken of as cause and condition;
This dharma has both its conditions and their extinction —
Thus has my Teacher taught."

Furthermore: suppose one holds that contaminated dharma has, of itself, contaminated dharma; or that contaminated dharma exists because of contaminated mind; or that contaminated dharma exists because of both dharma and mind together; or that contaminated dharma exists apart from both dharma and mind. Every such supposition falls into wrong view. Why is this?

If it is held that contaminated dharma exists because of contaminated dharma itself, this is "contaminated dharma from self-nature." But if it were contaminated dharma from self-nature, then there would have to be a contaminated dharma without end, since a self-nature would itself have to have a further self-nature behind it — and this is, in fact, not so.

If it is held that contaminated dharma cannot exist of itself, but exists because of contaminated mind, this is "contaminated dharma from another's nature." But why is this? If contaminated dharma depends on contaminated mind as its own nature, then contaminated mind, in turn, depends on contaminated dharma — how, then, is this not equally "another's nature"? And if contaminated dharma exists because of another's nature: if that other nature is itself already contaminated dharma, then contaminated dharma is still simply contaminated dharma, with no distinction from mind-dharma left at all; and if that other nature is not contaminated dharma, how could what is not contaminated dharma give rise to contaminated dharma? Hence it is known that contaminated dharma does not exist because of contaminated mind.

If it is held that contaminated dharma exists because of contaminated dharma and contaminated mind together, this is "joint existence." But if it is joint existence, then contaminated dharma would have to exist out of both self-nature and another's nature at once — and if so, there ought to be two contaminated dharmas arising at the same time. This, too, is in fact not so. Hence it is known that contaminated dharma does not exist through self-nature, another's nature, or their joint action.

If it is held that contaminated dharma exists apart from both contaminated dharma and contaminated mind, this is contaminated dharma existing without any cause or condition at all. If contaminated dharma existing through causes and conditions is already untenable, how much more untenable is contaminated dharma existing without any cause or condition whatsoever? Refuting the provisional reality established by cause is explained fully in the Great Calming and Contemplation. Contaminated mind is exactly the same, and the remaining three kinds of dharma-mind are likewise the same.

Furthermore: if contaminated dharma were fixed as, definitely, contaminated dharma, then this contaminated dharma would be a dharma of arising, ceasing, and continuing on — does it arise because of arising, because of ceasing, because of both arising and ceasing, or by leaving both arising and ceasing behind? If it arises by way of arising, this is self-arising; if it arises because of ceasing, this is other-arising; if it arises because of both arising and ceasing, this is joint arising; and if arising is spoken of apart from both arising and ceasing, this is arising without any cause or condition. If arising through causes and conditions is already untenable, how much more untenable is arising without any cause or condition? One should know, then, that the arising of the contaminated can, in the end, never be found. If there is no arising, there is no ceasing; if there is no arising and ceasing, there is no continuity; and if there is no continuity of arising and ceasing, then there is no contaminated dharma at all. Refuting the provisional reality established by continuity is explained fully in the Great Calming and Contemplation. Contaminated mind is exactly the same, and the remaining three kinds of dharma-mind are likewise the same.

Furthermore: if contaminated dharma is something that arises, does it arise because of arising, because of not-arising, because of both arising and not-arising, or because of neither arising nor not-arising? If it arises through arising, this is arising from self-nature; if it arises through not-arising, this is arising from another's nature; if it arises because of both arising and not-arising, this is joint arising; and if it arises because of neither arising nor not-arising, this is arising without any cause or condition. If arising through causes and conditions is already untenable, how much more untenable is arising without any cause or condition? Hence, seeking the arising of contaminated dharma within the provisional reality established by mutual dependence, it can, in the end, never be found. If there is no arising, there is no contaminated dharma. Refuting the provisional reality established by mutual dependence is explained fully in the Great Calming and Contemplation. Contaminated mind is exactly the same, and the remaining three kinds of dharma-mind are likewise the same.

One should know, then, that contaminated dharma, sought through this same fourfold scheme within each of the three provisional realities — establishment by cause, continuity, and mutual dependence alike — can, in the end, never be found. If it can never be found, how can a contaminated dharma be distinguished as existing at all? And if there is, in truth, no contaminated dharma, yet contaminated dharma is still spoken of — one should know that this is merely a matter of names, and that no fixed basis should be assumed to underlie it, lest idle theorizing be produced and the eye of wisdom destroyed. Contaminated mind, next, should be understood in exactly the same way. If contaminated dharma-mind is thus, the remaining three kinds of dharma-mind are likewise thus — it is only in terms of worldly names that this dharma of naming is spoken of; it is not located inside, outside, or in between the two, nor is it permanent; it possesses, of itself, a name that is really no name at all — hence it is called a "provisional name."

Question: If this is so, how can the difference between dharma and mind be distinguished at all? Answer: It is only in terms of worldly names that the difference between dharma and mind is distinguished — there is nothing fixed or truly real underlying it. Question: How, then, is the difference between dharma and mind distinguished within mere names? Answer: If one knows that dharma and mind possess nothing at all, and are only names, then distinguishing the mark of dharma and mind as above involves no fault. Hence the Larger Sūtra says: "Subhūti! Without destroying the provisional name, the true reality of all dharmas is spoken of."

Furthermore: the mental factors are dharma, the ruling mind is mind. The three aggregates of sensation, perception, and formations, together with the aggregate of form, are dharma; the aggregate of consciousness is mind. Mind-associated dharmas, mind-dissociated dharmas, form-dharmas, and unconditioned dharmas are dharma; mind-dharma itself is mind. What is taken as an object is dharma; what takes an object is mind. What is generated is dharma; what generates is mind. The object contemplated is dharma; the wisdom that contemplates is mind. Dharma is accomplished through mind, and mind depends upon dharma. In ways such as these, the difference between dharma and mind is variously distinguished within mere names. Though these distinctions are made, they are, every one, like a magical illusion — nothing to be grasped at or clung to, all alike returning to a single mark. This point will be explained fully further below, in the tenth topic, where the treatise is gathered together and its destination pointed out.